Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.7 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 27151 104183 102935 2026-06-20T18:03:57Z DaSupremo 9 Removed Nigerian Pidgin texts 104183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} ==Hydrology== <!-- {{Image frame |align=right |caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} |content= {{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart | group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 : 6984.0 : 7866.5 : 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9 | colors = lightblue | group names = Flow | x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D }} }} --> === Sediment transport === * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 0.7% of bedload * El Deim (at de border of Ethiopia den Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 28% of bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 20% of bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 27% of bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 13% of bedload ===Water sources den sinks=== ====Sources and sinks: countries==== De following table dey summarize water balance measurements give countries within de Nile Basin. Portions of countries outsyd de Nile Basin be excluded from de values. {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | Source || De country be a significant water source |- | Sink || De country be a significant water sink |- | Neutral || De country no be a significant source anaa sink |} <!-- The data includes the following: * Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]] * Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] --> {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | Neutral (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] | Neutral (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | Sink (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | Neutral (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | Source (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | Source (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | Neutral (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | Sink (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | Sink (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | Source (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | Source (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources den sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|De water balance tables of dis article dey contain water flow information dem measure at de twelve stations dem show insyd dis map.<ref name=HydroData/>|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | Source (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 Murchison Falls | Source (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | Neutral (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | Sink (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |Sink (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Source (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | Neutral (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | Source (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]] | Neutral (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Sink (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | Sink (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] 6tvx5ktgssgjzbjuij5ja7x8313qgdt 0 27179 104182 104071 2026-06-20T18:01:01Z DaSupremo 9 Removed Nigerian Pidgin texts 104182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] na9c93e0wpfku7c7v70ly4if4adheo2 0 27432 104172 101469 2026-06-20T17:23:20Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104172 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kaneshie Storm Drain''' be one major flood-control infrastructure project wey dey for Kaneshie, one commercial den transport hub for [[Greater Accra Region]], Ghana.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=World Bank Supports Ghana to Improve Flood Resilience for 2.5 Million People |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2019/05/29/world-bank-supports-ghana-to-improve-flood-resilience-for-25-million-people |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> E be important part of de Greater Accra Resilient and Integrated Development (GARID) Project, one urban resilience programme wey World Bank dey fund.<ref name=":0" /> De main aim of the project be to reduce de serious den regular flooding wey dey affect Kaneshie Market, one of de biggest markets for Accra, plus de major roads around de area.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GNA |date=2023-05-18 |title=Sanitation Minister visits communities under GARID Project |url=https://gna.org.gh/2023/05/sanitation-minister-visits-communities-under-garid-project/ |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Ghana News Agency |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=GNA |date=2024-05-21 |title=Finance Ministry announces Parliament's approval of US$150 million for flood control |url=https://gna.org.gh/2024/05/finance-ministry-announces-parliaments-approval-of-us150-million-for-flood-control/ |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Ghana News Agency |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Approval of Additional Financing for the GARID Project {{!}} Ministry of Finance {{!}} Ghana |url=https://mofep.gov.gh/news-and-events/2024-05-22/approval-of-additional-financing-for-the-garid-project? |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=mofep.gov.gh}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=World Bank Supports Ghana to Improve Flood Resilience for 2.5 million People |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/05/25/world-bank-supports-ghana-to-improve-flood-resilience-for-2-5-million-people |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> == Background == Greater Accra dey face flooding almost every year, wey dis dey cause plenty economic losses plus loss of lives. Kaneshie area, wey dey insyd de heavily urbanised Odaw River Basin, be one of de places wey flooding dey affect pass. Fast urban growth, poor waste management, den structures wey people build for waterways reduce de drainage capacity well-well. World Bank project documents show say lack of proper drainage infrastructure for important areas like Kaneshie dey cause regular den serious flooding, so dem make am one of de priority areas for intervention.<ref name=":0" /> == Design den construction == De Kaneshie Storm Drain be part of Component 2 (Flood Risk Management and Drainage) of de GARID Project.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Development Projects : Greater Accra Resilient and Integrated Development Project - P164330 |url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P164330 |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> De work dey include clearing structures wey encroach on de drainage reserve den constructing a new high-capacity reinforced concrete channel. De drain be designed to collect stormwater from de market area den de busy Kaneshie–Mallam highway den safely direct am into de larger Odaw drainage channel. For {{Date|July 2023}}, de project engineer report say de Kaneshie drain works be about ''70 percent complete'', wey dem say wen dem fini am, e go help solve de serious flooding wey dey affect de market den nearby lorry station.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> == Funding den administration == De project dey receive funding thru a credit facility from de International Development Association (IDA) of de World Bank. De first funding package be US$200 million wey dem approve for {{Date|2019}}. For {{Date|June 2024}}, de World Bank Board approve extra US$150 million to expand de flood resilience activities under de project den support important drainage works like de Kaneshie Storm Drain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-22 |title=Parliament approves $150m GARID funds |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-parliament-approves-150m-garid-funds.html |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> De Ministry of Works and Housing dey supervise de project thru de GARID Project Coordinating Unit. === Social impact den safeguards === De drain dey help protect de livelihoods of thousands of traders for Kaneshie Market den de chaw commuters wey dey pass thru de area every day. As part of de project ein social safeguard measures, dem implement a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) to compensate den support people wey de clearing of de drainage reserve affect. Details of dese commitments dey insyd de project ein Environmental and Social Commitment Plan (ESCP), wey be public document between de Government of Ghana den de World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> === Challenges === Carrying out a big infrastructure project insyd a crowded urban market area come plus challenges. De removal of structures from de drainage reserve require extensive community engagement den timely payment of compensation, as project implementation reports show.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GNA |date=2023-07-17 |title=Ga East Municipal Assembly begins implementation of GARID project with stakeholder engagement |url=https://gna.org.gh/2023/07/ga-east-municipal-assembly-begins-implementation-of-garid-project-with-stakeholder-engagement/ |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Ghana News Agency |language=en-US}}</ref> Ghana News Agency report for {{Date|August 2023}} say de project team dey push hard to finish important drains before de end of de year while balancing engineering works plus community relocation arrangements.<ref name=":3" /> == References == <references /> [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Infrastructure insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Water management]] [[Category:Flood control]] [[Category:World Bank]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] [[Category:Environmental engineering]] [[Category:Civil engineering]] [[Category:Urban planning]] 0ye3ahzdz0zxzmgvdp218y64g0kpo0l 0 27434 104179 103828 2026-06-20T17:49:06Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104179 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Boy drinks from a tap at a NEWAH WASH water project in Puware Shikhar, Udayapur District, Nepal. (10677936093).jpg|thumb|A boy dey drink from tap for NEWAH WASH water project for Nepal]] [[File:Sanitation work 3.jpg|thumb|People dey sanitize environment for Nigeria]] De '''human right to water den sanitation''' ('''HRWS''') be principle wey talk say clean [[drinking water]] den [[sanitation]] be universal human right secof dem very important for supporting every person life.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|access-date=12 December 2020|website=United Nations|language=EN}}</ref> United Nations General Assembly recognize am as human right on 28 July 2010.<ref name="HRWS">{{cite web|url=http://undocs.org/A/RES/64/292|title=Resolution 64/292: The human right to water and sanitation|date=August 2010|website=United Nations|access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref> HRWS dem recognize insyd international law thru human rights treaties, declarations den oda standards. Some commentators argue say human right to water dey exist independent of 2010 General Assembly resolution, based on things like Article 11.1 of International Covenant on Economic, Social den Cultural Rights (ICESCR); among those wey accept international ''ius cogens'', dem believe say dis right be binding principle of international law. Other treaties wey explicitly recognize HRWS dey include 1979 Convention on de Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) den 1989 Convention on de Rights of de Child (CRC). De clearest definition of human right to water come from United Nations Committee on Economic, Social den Cultural Rights for General Comment 15 wey dem draft for 2002.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d11.html |access-date=27 November 2020 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref> E be non-binding interpretation wey explain say access to water be condition for enjoying de right to adequate standard of living, wey e closely link to right to highest attainable health standard, so e be human right. E talk say: "de human right to water entitle everybody to enough, safe, acceptable, physically accessible den affordable water for personal den domestic use."<ref name=":3" /> De first resolutions about HRWS come from UN General Assembly den UN Human Rights Council for 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> Dem state say sanitation right dey connected to water right, secof poor sanitation fit spoil water quality downstream, so later discussions continue to treat both together. For July 2010, UN General Assembly Resolution 64/292 confirm again say people get human right to safe, affordable, clean den accessible water den sanitation services.<ref>Baer, M. 2015. From Water Wars to Water Rights: Implementing the Human Right to Water in Bolivia, Journal of Human Rights, 14:3, 353-376, {{doi|10.1080/14754835.2014.988782}}</ref> During dat General Assembly, dem emphasize say for people to enjoy life den all oda human rights well, safe clean drinking water den sanitation be necessary human right.<ref>UN (United Nations). 2010. Resolution adopted by the general assembly. 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation. A/RES/64/292. New York: United Nations.</ref> Dis resolution raise questions about how government suppose manage den provide water den sanitation responsibilities. United Nations Development Programme talk say wen access to clean water den sanitation cam be widely recognized, e go improve people life quality den health.<ref>UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document. UNDP, New York, NY, USA. See http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010713151912/http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ |date=13 July 2001 }} (accessed 21 June 2012)</ref><ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Drinking water: Equity, Satefy and sustainability. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water and Sanitation.</ref><ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.</ref> Revised UN resolution for 2015 emphasize say de two rights separate but equal.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation|url=http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The%20Human%20Rights%20To%20Water%20And%20Sanitation%20UN%20resolution.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825141743/http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The|url-status=dead}}</ref> HRWS dey put obligation on governments make dem ensure say people fit enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible den affordable water den sanitation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Water/Handbook/Book1_intro_.pdf|title=Realising the human rights to water and sanitation: A Handbook by the UN Special Rapporteur|last=de Albuquerque|first=Catarina|publisher=United Nations|year=2014|location=Portugal|pages=Introduction}}</ref> Water affordability dey look how cost fit become burden wey go force people sacrifice other basic needs.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Roaf|first1=Virginia|title=The Human Rights to Water and Sanitation|date=26 July 2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315471532-2|series=Equality in Water and Sanitation Services|pages=26–43|location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-47153-2|access-date=29 October 2020|last2=Albuquerque|first2=Catarina de|last3=Heller|first3=Léo|doi=10.4324/9781315471532-2|s2cid=204491938}}</ref> Normally, guideline for water affordability be say e no suppose pass 3–5% of household income.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=III.S.8 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 64/292 (On the Right to Water and Sanitation) (28 July 2010) |title=International Law & World Order|year=2012|pages=1–2|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|doi=10.1163/ilwo-iiis8|isbn=978-90-04-20870-4}}</ref> Accessibility of water dey consider time wey person take reach source, convenience, den risk involved.<ref name=":4" /> Water suppose be reachable for every citizen, meaning say e no suppose be more dan 1,000 meters anaa 3,280 feet away wey for fi be accessed within 30 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|access-date=27 April 2021|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Availability of water dey consider whether supply dey enough, reliable den sustainable.<ref name=":4" /> Water quality dey check whether e safe for drinking den oda use.<ref name=":4" /> For acceptability, water no suppose get bad smell anaa get strange color.<ref name=":8" /> ICESCR require say countries wey sign am must progressively achieve den respect all human rights, wey dey include water den sanitation rights.<ref name=":1" /> Dem suppose work fast den effective to improve access den service.<ref name=":1" /> == International context == De WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation report say 663 million people no get access to improved drinking water sources den more dan 2.4 billion people no get basic sanitation services for 2015.<ref name="JMP report 2013">[https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMPreport2013.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703112631/https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMPreport2013.pdf|date=3 July 2017}} ,2015 report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> Clean water access still be big global problem. Acceptable water sources include "household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs den rainwater collections."<ref name="ref1">General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. 28 July 2010. Accessed 20 March 2014.</ref> Even though about 9% of global population no get water access, some regions still lag behind, especially Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="ref1" /> UN sanso highlight say "about 1.5 million children under five dey die every year den 443 million school days dey lost secof water den sanitation related diseases."<ref name="ref2">Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. n.d. Accessed 20 March 2014.</ref> For 2022, over 2 billion people (25% of world population) no get steady access to clean drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transforming Water Access: How the "World's Lifeblood" is Under Attack. |url=https://www.usglc.org/blog/transforming-water-access-how-the-worlds-lifeblood-is-under-attack/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=USGLC |language=en-US}}</ref> 4.2 billion people no get access to safe sanitation services.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=SeventhQueen |last2=Wolf |first2=Jared |date=8 June 2022 |title=The truth behind clean water in Africa 2022 |url=https://sustainablereview.com/billions-still-lack-access-to-clean-water-2022/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=Sustainable Review |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Advocacy |first=W. V. |date=22 March 2022 |title=How Improving Clean Water Access Can Fight Global Hunger |url=https://worldvisionadvocacy.org/2022/03/22/clean-water-global-hunger/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=World Vision Advocacy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Building access to clean water in support of Sustainable Development Goal 6 {{!}} UNICEF Supply Division |url=https://www.unicef.org/supply/stories/building-access-clean-water-support-sustainable-development-goal-6 |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> By 2024, new estimates show say about 4.4 billion people for low den middle income countries no get access to safe household drinking water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=Esther E. |last2=Lauber |first2=Thomas |last3=van den Hoogen |first3=Johan |last4=Donmez |first4=Ayca |last5=Bain |first5=Robert E. S. |last6=Johnston |first6=Richard |last7=Crowther |first7=Thomas W. |last8=Julian |first8=Timothy R. |date=16 August 2024 |title=Mapping safe drinking water use in low- and middle-income countries |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh9578 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=385 |issue=6710 |pages=784–790 |doi=10.1126/science.adh9578 |pmid=39146419 |bibcode=2024Sci...385..784G |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ford |first=Celia |date=15 August 2024 |title=More than 4 billion people don't have access to clean water at home |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/367224/clean-drinking-water-access-four-billion-science-study |access-date=30 August 2024 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref> ==Legal foundations den recognition== De International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 be document wey bring togeda de economic, social den cultural rights wey dey insyd de Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. None of dese early documents explicitly recognize human rights to water den sanitation. But later international human rights conventions come include provisions wey directly recognize water den sanitation rights. * De 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) get Article 14.2 wey talk say "parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women insyd rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men den women, say dem dey participate in den benefit from rural development den, in particular shall ensure to women de right: ... (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity den water supply, transport den communications."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> * De 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) get Article 24 wey recognize say children get right to enjoy highest attainable standard of health den access to facilities for treatment of illness den rehabilitation… den states must take steps like provision of adequate nutritious food and clean drinking water…<ref>The full text of the Convention on the rights of the child is available at: {{cite web |title=Convention on the Rights of the Child |publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |date=20 November 1989 |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm |access-date=21 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611182141/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm |archive-date=11 June 2010 }}.</ref> * De 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) get Article 28(2)(a) wey require say persons with disabilities must get equal access to social protection and clean water services, plus access to appropriate and affordable services and support devices.<ref>The text of the Convention is available here: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities</ref> "The International Bill of Human Rights"—wey include the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966 Articles 11 and 12 of ICESCR, and 1948 Article 25 of UDHR—don help show how human right to water and sanitation evolve come become recognized worldwide.<ref>Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Benjamin Mason|last2=Kayser|first2=Georgia|last3=Amjad|first3=Urooj|last4=Bartram|first4=Jamie|date=15 November 2012|title=Implementing an Evolving Human Right Through Water and Sanitation Policy |journal=Water Policy |volume=15 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2015424|language=en|location=Rochester, N.Y.|ssrn=2015424}}</ref> Scholars also emphasize importance of UN recognition of water and sanitation rights near end of 20th century. Early definitions come from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of University of the Pacific in 1992<ref name=":2">[http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/gintenlr5&div=7&id=&page=], McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24.</ref> and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999.<ref name="pacinst.org">[http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2012/10/basic_water_needs_human_right_to_water.pdf], Gleick, P.H. "The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503.</ref> McCaffrey talk say this right fit link to right to food, health or even right to life.<ref name=":2" /> Gleick add say access to basic water requirement be human right supported by international law and state practice.<ref name="pacinst.org" /> The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) wey dey monitor ICESCR compliance come agree with these scholars through General Comment 15 for 2002.<ref name=":0" /> Dem conclude say right to water dey part of right to adequate standard of living and also connect to health, housing and food rights.<ref name=":0" /> E define say: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses..."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resources and Information|url=http://ww1.unhchr.ch/|access-date=27 November 2020|website=ww1.unhchr.ch}}</ref> Some countries formally accept say water right be part of ICESCR obligations, like Germany, United Kingdom,<ref>{{Cite web|title=righttowater - Just another WordPress site|url=https://www.righttowater.info/|access-date=27 November 2020|website=righttowater|language=en-US}}</ref> and Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Human rights: the Netherlands officially recognises the right to water|url=http://www.irc.nl/page/39765|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222211635/http://www.irc.nl/page/39765|archive-date=22 February 2009|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> For 2005, UN Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights issue guidelines to help governments implement water and sanitation rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Realization of the right to drinking water and sanitation Report of the Special Rapporteur, El Hadji Guissé|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/SUb_Com_Guisse_guidelines.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> This lead Human Rights Council to appoint Catarina de Albuquerque as independent expert in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/overview.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706011034/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/overview.htm|archive-date=6 July 2010|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> She later report in 2009 and CESCR confirm say sanitation must be recognized by all states.<ref name=":1" /> After long negotiation, 122 countries accept “Human Right to Water and Sanitation” through UN General Assembly Resolution 64/292 for 28 July 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=United Nations Official Document |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/64/292 |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> E recognize say every person suppose get access to enough water for personal and domestic use (50–100 liters per person per day), safe, acceptable, affordable (cost no pass 3% of income), and accessible (source no pass 1,000 meters or 30 minutes collection time).<ref name= ref2 /> UN General Assembly also declare say clean drinking water be "essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights".<ref name= ref2 /> For September 2010, UN Human Rights Council pass resolution wey confirm say water and sanitation be part of right to adequate standard of living.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=UN united to make the right to water and sanitation legally binding |date=1 October 2010 |publisher=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |access-date=27 November 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129163313/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |archivedate=29 November 2010}}</ref> Catarina de Albuquerque later become Special Rapporteur and continue report on issues like non-state service provision (2010), financing (2011), wastewater management (2013), and sustainability/non-retrogression (2013).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10356&LangID=E|title=Statement by the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to safe drinking water and sanitation, Ms Catarina de Albuquerque at the 15th session of the Human Rights Council|website=newsarchive.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102053934/https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10356&LangID=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11542&LangID=E|title=Statement by the Special Rapporteur on the right to access to safe drinking water and sanitation at the 66th Session of the General Assembly|website=newsarchive.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026102841/https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11542&LangID=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/WasteWaterManagement.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Wastewater management|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/Sustainabilityretrogressionrealisationofwaterandsanitation.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realisation of the rights to water and sanitation|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref> Léo Heller later take over as Special Rapporteur in 2014. Later General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 confirm distinction between right to water and right to sanitation, because sanitation matter dey get less attention compared to water.<ref name=":3" /> == International jurisprudence == === Inter-American Court of Human Rights === Right to water appear for Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.<ref name=para>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234132/https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/Judgment,%20Case%20of%20the%20Sawhoyamaxa%20Indigenous%20Community%20v.%20Paraguay.pdf ''Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234132/https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/Judgment,%20Case%20of%20the%20Sawhoyamaxa%20Indigenous%20Community%20v.%20Paraguay.pdf |date=29 March 2017 }} (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 29 March 2006).</ref> The case involve state failure to recognize indigenous land rights. For 1991, government remove Sawhoyamaxa community from their land, and dem lose access to water, food, education and health services.<ref name=para/> This fall under American Convention on Human Rights and affect right to life.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Convention on Human Rights |publisher=Inter-American Commission on Human Rights |date=22 November 1969 |url=http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm |access-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618195529/http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref> Water form part of this right as access to land. Court order say land must return and basic services provide during transition period.<ref>[http://www.escr-net.org/node/365163f] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507013122/http://www.escr-net.org/node/365163f|date=7 May 2014}}, International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural RIghts, Case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.</ref> === International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) === ICSID cases concern contracts between governments and private companies for water services. Even though cases be about investment, some commentators note say right to water influence outcomes indirectly.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hUwgAwAAQBAJ&dq=Azurix+Corp+v+Argentina+right+to+water&pg=PA296], Global Public Interest in International Investment Law, Andreas Kulick, 2012 at 303.</ref> Water privatization increase sharply from 1990s according to World Bank data.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bakker|first=Karen|date=27 February 2013|title=Neoliberal Versus Postneoliberal Water: Geographies of Privatization and Resistance|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume=103|issue=2|pages=253–260|doi=10.1080/00045608.2013.756246|bibcode=2013AAAG..103..253B |s2cid=143834419}}</ref> ==== Azurix Corp v. Argentina ==== This case involve dispute between Argentine Republic and Azurix Corporation over 30-year water contract.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5 ''Azurix Corp v. Argentina''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5 |date=4 March 2016 }}, ICSID Case No ARB/01/12.</ref> Tribunal decide say Azurix deserve fair return on investment but reject full claim of US$438.6 million because expectation for profit must be reasonable given water pricing limits and service obligations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5|date=4 March 2016}}, Azurix Corp v Argentina ICSID Case No ARB/01/12 at 149.</ref> ==== Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania ==== This case involve private water company dispute with Tanzania government over Dar es Salaam water system contract.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003519/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC1590_En&caseId=C67 ''Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd v. Tanzania''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003519/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC1590_En&caseId=C67 |date=4 March 2016 }}, ICSID Case No ARB/05/22.</ref> Government cancel contract in 2005 over performance issues. Tribunal later rule say government breach agreement but no award damages to company due to public interest concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biwater v. Tanzania|url=https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-dispute-settlement/cases/202/biwater-v-tanzania|access-date=12 December 2020|website=UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub}}</ref> == Right to water in domestic law == Without international enforcement body, human right to water depend on national courts.<ref>[http://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=lucilr], McGraw, George S. "Defining and Defending the Right to Water and its Minimum Core: Legal Construction and the Role of National Jurisprudence" ''Loyola University Chicago International Law Review'' Vol. 8, No. 2, 127-204 (2011) at 137.</ref> Countries implement am through constitutions and laws, either as non-justiciable principles or enforceable rights.<ref>[http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf|date=29 January 2018}}, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 297</ref> === South Africa === [[File:Communal tap for drinking water (2941731238).jpg|thumb|A group of people gathering around a communal tap in Johannesburg, South Africa]] For South Africa, constitution explicitly recognize right to water and implementation happen through national laws. This show model where constitution set principle and laws handle details.<ref name="kaupapature.org.nz">[http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf|date=29 January 2018}}, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 298</ref> ==== Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council ==== This case involve residents of Bon Vista Mansions after local council disconnect water due to unpaid bills. Court rule say people must get access to water under South African Constitution.<ref>[http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/a108-96.pdf], South African Constitution, Section 27(1)(a).</ref> Court also rely on UN General Comment 12 on right to food which require states not to interfere with existing access to basic needs.<ref>[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/escgencom12.htm], Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 12, Right to adequate food (Twentieth session, 1999), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/5 (1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 62 (2003).</ref> Court find say stopping water supply violate law under South African Water Services Act because procedure no fair or reasonable.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031003941/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf|date=31 October 2017}}, South African Water Services Act [No. 108 of 1997] Section 4 (3)</ref> This decision come before UN General Comment 15 be officially adopted.<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/ga10967.doc.htm], UN General Comment No. 15</ref> ====''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''==== The question of how much water people suppose receive come be discussed further in ''[[Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg]]''.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPHC/2008/491.pdf ''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''], (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008)</ref> The case center on how water dey distribute through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas for Soweto. The case bring two main issues: first, whether the city policy on free basic water—6 kilolitres per month for each account holder—conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031003941/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf|date=31 October 2017}}, South African Water Services Act. [No. 108 of 1997] Section 11</ref> Second issue be whether installation of pre-paid water meters be lawful or not. The High Court hold say the city by-laws no allow installation of meters, so the meters installation be illegal. The court also hold say because the meters stop water supply after free basic water finish, that count as unlawful discontinuation of water supply. The court then rule say residents of Phiri must receive free basic water of 50 litres per person per day.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPHC/2008/491.pdf ''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''], (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) at 181</ref> Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of University of the Witwatersrand for Johannesburg and Pacific Institute for Oakland, California, share 2008 Business Ethics Network (BENNY) Award for their work on this case.<ref>[http://businessethicsnetwork.org/] Business Ethics Network</ref> Pacific Institute also provide legal testimony based on work of Dr. Peter Gleick wey help define human right to water and explain minimum water needs.<ref>[http://pacinst.org/news/350/], Pacific Institute "Pacific Institute Shares BENNY Award for Efforts in South African Water Rights Decision." (2008), Pacific Institute, Oakland, California</ref> The main respondents carry the case go Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA), wey rule say city water policy suffer from error of law about minimum obligation under South African National Standard, so dem set am aside.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/sites/PEG/docs/PEG%20Documents/10_SANS1-1.pdf?stdsid=14017755&pid=free, |title=South African National Standard 3(b) |access-date=6 May 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071006/http://www.iso.org/sites/PEG/docs/PEG%20Documents/10_SANS1-1.pdf?stdsid=14017755&pid=free, |url-status=dead }}</ref> Court also hold say minimum quantity for dignified human life under Section 27 be 42 litres per person per day, not 50 litres. SCA declare say installation of water meters be illegal, but dem suspend the order for two years make city fit correct the system.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl?file=za/cases/ZASCA/2009/52.html&query=mazibuko], Mazibuko and Another v National Director of Public Prosecutions (113/08) [2009] ZASCA 52; 2009 (6) SA 479 (SCA); [2009] 3 All SA 548 (SCA) (26 May 2009)</ref> The matter later go Constitutional Court. The court hold say constitution require state to take reasonable steps—through laws and policies—to progressively realize access to water, based on available resources. Court also say government policy decisions must stay within budget limits, and courts no suppose replace government role in deciding social and economic policy. So the minimum basic water policy was held constitutional, and government fit even go above am, but court no get power to prescribe exact quantity for social rights implementation.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl?file=za/cases/ZACC/2009/28.html&query=mazibuko ''Mazibuko and Other v. City of Johannesburg and Others''] (CCt 39/09) [2009] ZACC 28; 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC); 2010 (4) SA 1 (CC) (8 October 2009)</ref> The court focus instead on whether government steps be reasonable and whether dem dey review their policies regularly.<ref name="kaupapature.org.nz"/> Some critics argue say the judgment use too much judicial restraint and limit strong enforcement of social rights.<ref>Alston & Goodman, International Human Rights, Oxford University Press (2013), Lucy A. Williams, "The Role of Courts In The Quantitative-Implementation of Social and Economic Rights: A Comparative Study", 3 ''Constitutional Court Review'' 2010 [South Africa] (2011) 141</ref> === India === Two major cases for India show how courts interpret right to water even though e no explicitly written inside Constitution, but as part of right to life, courts include am under safe and sufficient water access.<ref>[http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=njihr], Amy Hardberger "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Water: Evaluating Water as a Human Right and the Duties and Obligations it Creates" (2005) 4 ''Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights'' 331 at 352</ref> [[File:Jamuna River 04.jpg|thumb|The Yamuna River, river wey Haryana state and Delhi dey use]] ====''Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana''==== This dispute start because Haryana dey use Yamuna River water for irrigation while Delhi need am for drinking and domestic use. Court rule say domestic use get priority over commercial use, so Haryana must release enough water for Delhi residents.<ref name="indiankanoon.org">[http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1520766/ ''Delhi Water Supply & Sewage v. State Of Haryana & Ors''], 1999 SCC(2) 572, JT 1996 (6) 107</ref> ====''Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar''==== For this case, petitioner challenge pollution of Bokaro River due to waste discharge from washeries. Court hold say right to life under Article 21 include right to clean and pollution-free water.<ref>[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064301/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|date=2 April 2012}}, The Constitution of India</ref> However, case fail because court find say petition no be genuine public interest but personal interest, so continuation of case go count as abuse of process.<ref name="indiankanoon.org"/> ==== World Rights to Water Day ==== Water be essential for life of all living beings, including humans. So access to clean and enough water be considered inalienable human right. Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) believe say this right suppose be clearly recognized by law, including minimum per capita water access. United Nations already set obligations on countries through different covenants to ensure fair distribution of water to citizens. Because of this, ENF start observe and promote World Rights to Water Day on 20 March, date wey Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar lead first water satyagraha in 1927. The day encourage adoption of laws wey guarantee universal right to water. Under guidance of founder Dr Priyanand Agale, ENF organize programmes to promote access to water rights for citizens.<ref>econeeds.org</ref> === New Zealand === Economic, social and cultural rights no get explicit protection under New Zealand Human Rights Act or Bill of Rights Act, so right to water no get direct legal protection there.<ref>Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard, [http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf |date=29 January 2018 }}, [2013] NZLJ 289 at 299</ref> New Zealand Law Society don indicate recently say dem go still consider legal recognition of these rights.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180304033140/http://www.lawsociety.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76530/l-HR-Committee-ICCPR-List-of-Issues-Prior-to-Reporting-5-3-14-with-annexure,-UPR-submission-17-6-13.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304033140/http://www.lawsociety.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76530/l-HR-Committee-ICCPR-List-of-Issues-Prior-to-Reporting-5-3-14-with-annexure,-UPR-submission-17-6-13.pdf|date=4 March 2018}}, New Zealand Law Society Human Rights & Privacy Committee, Submission to the 18th Session of The Human Rights Council, Shadow Report to New Zealand's 2nd Universal Periodic Review</ref> === United States === For United States, no federal law officially recognize human right to water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://law.northeastern.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/phrge-water-primer.pdf |title=The Human Right to Water in the United States |author1=Kevin Murray |author2=Sara Kominers |publisher=Northeastern University School of Law}}</ref> But some federal laws protect water quality, including: * Safe Drinking Water Act (public water systems, not private wells or bottled water) * Clean Water Act (surface waters of the United States) * Resource Conservation and Recovery Act * Superfund (CERCLA) * National Environmental Policy Act (environmental impact requirements) === Australia === Attention for Australia focus mainly on Indigenous Australians’ water rights. Settler-colonial history still influence how water resources dey managed today. Even though government make agreements, many still no fully address Indigenous access to water and sanitation. In ''Mabo v Queensland (No 2)'', native title rights get legal recognition for first time in 1992. Indigenous Australians often connect land and water to cultural identity, but legal system still struggle to fully recognize spiritual and cultural water rights.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Poirier|first1=Robert|last2=Schartmueller|first2=Doris|date=1 September 2012|title=Indigenous water rights in Australia|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002|journal=The Social Science Journal|volume=49|issue=3|pages=317–324|doi=10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002|s2cid=144101999|issn=0362-3319|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Burdon|first1=Peter|last2=Drew|first2=Georgina|last3=Stubbs|first3=Matthew|last4=Webster|first4=Adam|last5=Barber|first5=Marcus|date=2 October 2015|title=Decolonising Indigenous water 'rights' in Australia: flow, difference, and the limits of law|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907|journal=Settler Colonial Studies|volume=5|issue=4|pages=334–349|doi=10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907|s2cid=154484189|issn=2201-473X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Australian water law allow citizens use surface water but no own am. Inland and river water rights mostly under state control, while Commonwealth get power through external affairs, trade and grants powers.<ref name=":5" /> For 2000, Federal Court allow Indigenous people use water for traditional purposes, but irrigation no count as traditional use.<ref name=":5" /> For 2004, National Water Initiative recognize Indigenous water interests, but critics say it no fully address historical inequality in water distribution.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=1 December 2014|title=Indigenous people's right to water under international law: a legal pluralism perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877343514000700|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|language=en|volume=11|pages=26–33|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2014.09.015|issn=1877-3435|last1=Gupta|first1=Joyeeta|last2=Hildering|first2=Antoinette|last3=Misiedjan|first3=Daphina|bibcode=2014COES...11...26G |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Remaining discussions == === Transboundary effects === [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Ethiopia move to fill [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] reservoir fit reduce [[Nile]] flow reach up to 25% and spoil Egypt farmland.<ref>{{cite news |title=In Africa, War Over Water Looms As Ethiopia Nears Completion Of Nile River Dam |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/02/27/589240174/in-africa-war-over-water-looms-as-ethiopia-nears-completion-of-nile-river-dam?t=1595668819363 |work=[[NPR]] |date=27 February 2018}}</ref>]] [[File:Nord-Krim-Kanal.png|right|thumb|After Russia annex Crimea, Ukraine block the [[North Crimean Canal]], wey dey give about 85% of Crimea fresh water.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pray For Rain: Crimea's Dry-Up A Headache For Moscow, Dilemma For Kyiv |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/pray-for-rain-crimea-s-dry-up-a-headache-for-moscow-dilemma-for-kyiv/30515986.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=29 March 2020}}</ref>]] Since access to water dey cross borders and fit cause tension for areas like Middle East, South Asia, Eastern Mediterranean and some parts of North America, some NGOs and scholars dey argue say right to water get trans-national side too. Dem believe say because water no dey respect borders, countries suppose avoid actions wey fit spoil other people human rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FIAN International|url=https://fian.org/en/|access-date=30 March 2021|website=fian.org}}</ref> Dis idea also fit help reduce global "water crunch" wey population increase dey cause. But as population dey grow, water scarcity go still create serious problem. E also raise question whether water fit dey move from one country go another or not.<ref name= ref3>McCaffrey, Stephen C. "Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, A." ''Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev.'' 5 (1992): 1.</ref> ==== Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan ==== Water matter between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] dey connected to water shortage for South Asia.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Bakhtawar|first=Saadia|date=2012|title=Water: an Economic Resource Conflict between India and Pakistan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3597519|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3597519|issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem get agreement called [[Indus Waters Treaty]] wey dey divide river use between di two countries after independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Salman|first1=Salman M. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA42|title=Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers: A Legal Perspective|last2=Uprety|first2=Kishor|date=2002|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5352-3|language=en}}</ref> Even with di treaty, wahala still dey. Pakistan dey fear say India dam projects fit reduce water wey go reach dem and cause scarcity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=Pankaj Kumar|date=2012|title=Conflict over Water Between India and Pakistan: Fear and Hopes?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856568|journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science|volume=73|issue=1|pages=133–140|jstor=41856568|issn=0019-5510}}</ref> === Water commercialization versus state provision === Debate still dey whether government or private companies suppose handle water supply and sanitation. Some people believe say water scarcity make private sector management better because e fit increase efficiency and reduce waste. Dem argue say government water system cost too much and no dey always effective, so market approach fit help manage water better.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilder|first1=Margaret|last2=Romero Lankao|first2=Patricia|date=November 2006|title=Paradoxes of Decentralization: Water Reform and Social Implications in Mexico|journal=World Development|volume=34|issue=11|pages=1977–1995|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.026}}</ref> But other side talk say water be human right, so e no suppose depend on profit or private companies. Dem believe say water suppose dey available for everybody because e dey essential for life.<ref name="ref4">Bakker, Karen. "The "Commons" Versus the "Commodity": Alter‐globalization, Anti‐privatization and the Human Right to Water in the Global South". ''Antipode'' 39.3 (2007): 430-455.</ref> === Organizations === Organizations wey dey work for water and sanitation rights include: ==== United Nations organizations ==== * [[OHCHR]] * [[UNDP]] * [[UNICEF]] * Sanitation and Water for All ==== Governmental cooperation agencies ==== * [[DFID]] * [[GIZ]] * [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation|SDC]] * [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] ==== International NGOs and networks ==== * [[Action against Hunger]] * [[Blood:Water]] * Center for Water Security and Cooperation * Freshwater Action Network (FAN) * Pure Water for the World * The DigDeep Right to Water Project * [[Pacific Institute]] * The Water Project * [[Transnational Institute]] * UUSC * [[WaterAid]] * WaterLex * [[PeaceJam]] * [[Thirst Project]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-water-and-sanitation Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation] by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights * [https://www.waterlex.org/ WaterLex Archive] * [https://www.ircwash.org/resources/human-right-water-and-sanitation-translating-theory-practice The Human Right to Water and Sanitation: Translating Theory into Practice (2009)] by [[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit|GIZ]] * [https://www.humanium.org/en/water/ Right to Water: Understanding children's right to water] on Humanium {{Authority control}} [[Category:Water]] [[Category:Sanitation]] [[Category:Right to health]] gfo7y3diaw5anwg27w37bcj0te0ri24 0 27435 104322 101473 2026-06-20T23:24:36Z DaSupremo 9 Article contains Nigerian Pidgin words so I rewrote it in Ghanaian Pidgin 104322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De beliefs den practices of African people be highly diverse den dey include various ethnic religions.<ref name="mol">Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) [[Molefi Kete Asante]]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ndlovu|first=Tommy Matshakayile|title=Imikhuba lamasiko AmaNdebele|date=1995|publisher=Mambo Press|others=Doris Ndlovu, Bekithemba S. Ncube|isbn=0-86922-624-X|location=Gweru, Gasiya Zimbabwe|oclc=34114180}}</ref> Generally, dese traditions be oral rather dan scriptural wey dem be passed down from one generation to another thru narratives, songs, myths, den festivals.<ref>{{cite book | last=Juergensmeyer | first=Mark | title=The Oxford handbook of global religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford | date=2006 | isbn=0-19-513798-1 | oclc=64084086}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Mbiti | first=John S. | title=Introduction to African religion | publisher=Heinemann Educational Books | publication-place=Oxford [England] | date=1991 | isbn=0-435-94002-3 | oclc=24376978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nweke |first=Kizito Chinedu |date=2022-12-25 |title=Responding to new Imageries in African indigenous Spiritualties |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/Religious/article/view/20246 |journal=Religious: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama dan Lintas Budaya |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=271–282 |doi=10.15575/rjsalb.v6i3.20246 |s2cid=255213985 |issn=2528-7249|doi-access=free }}</ref> Dem dey include beliefs insyd spirits den higher den lower gods, sometimes dey include a supreme being, as well as de veneration of de dead, use of magic, den African traditional medicine. Chaw religions fi be described as animistic<ref name="Kimmerle 15">{{Cite journal|last=Kimmerle|first=Heinz|date=2006-04-11|title=The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism|journal=The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa|language=en-US|volume=2|issue=2|page=15|doi=10.4102/td.v2i2.277|issn=2415-2005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Vontress 2005 124–137">{{Citation|last=Vontress|first=Clemmont E.|title=Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa|date=2005|url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml|work=Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy|pages=124–137|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|access-date=2019-10-31|doi=10.4135/9781452231648|isbn=978-0-7619-3047-1|url-access=subscription}}</ref> plus various polytheistic den pantheistic aspects.<ref name="mol"/><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section6.shtml An African Story] [[BBC]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20151102074637/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section6.shtml Archived] November 2, 2015, at the [[Wayback Machine]].</ref> De role of humanity be generally seen as one of harmonizing nature plus de supernatural.<ref name="mol"/><ref>[https://hts.org.za/index.php/HTS/article/view/341/758#17 What is religion? An African understanding] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160521115514/http://www.hts.org.za/index.php/HTS/article/view/341/758#17 Archived] May 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.</ref> == References == ne5o8veclvumte12j8tswyg1igi1yr1 104323 104322 2026-06-20T23:37:12Z DaSupremo 9 /* Traditions by region */ Improve article 104323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De beliefs den practices of African people be highly diverse den dey include various ethnic religions.<ref name="mol">Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) [[Molefi Kete Asante]]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ndlovu|first=Tommy Matshakayile|title=Imikhuba lamasiko AmaNdebele|date=1995|publisher=Mambo Press|others=Doris Ndlovu, Bekithemba S. Ncube|isbn=0-86922-624-X|location=Gweru, Gasiya Zimbabwe|oclc=34114180}}</ref> Generally, dese traditions be oral rather dan scriptural wey dem be passed down from one generation to another thru narratives, songs, myths, den festivals.<ref>{{cite book | last=Juergensmeyer | first=Mark | title=The Oxford handbook of global religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford | date=2006 | isbn=0-19-513798-1 | oclc=64084086}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Mbiti | first=John S. | title=Introduction to African religion | publisher=Heinemann Educational Books | publication-place=Oxford [England] | date=1991 | isbn=0-435-94002-3 | oclc=24376978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nweke |first=Kizito Chinedu |date=2022-12-25 |title=Responding to new Imageries in African indigenous Spiritualties |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/Religious/article/view/20246 |journal=Religious: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama dan Lintas Budaya |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=271–282 |doi=10.15575/rjsalb.v6i3.20246 |s2cid=255213985 |issn=2528-7249|doi-access=free }}</ref> Dem dey include beliefs insyd spirits den higher den lower gods, sometimes dey include a supreme being, as well as de veneration of de dead, use of magic, den African traditional medicine. Chaw religions fi be described as animistic<ref name="Kimmerle 15">{{Cite journal|last=Kimmerle|first=Heinz|date=2006-04-11|title=The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism|journal=The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa|language=en-US|volume=2|issue=2|page=15|doi=10.4102/td.v2i2.277|issn=2415-2005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Vontress 2005 124–137">{{Citation|last=Vontress|first=Clemmont E.|title=Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa|date=2005|url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml|work=Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy|pages=124–137|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|access-date=2019-10-31|doi=10.4135/9781452231648|isbn=978-0-7619-3047-1|url-access=subscription}}</ref> plus various polytheistic den pantheistic aspects.<ref name="mol"/><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section6.shtml An African Story] [[BBC]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20151102074637/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section6.shtml Archived] November 2, 2015, at the [[Wayback Machine]].</ref> De role of humanity be generally seen as one of harmonizing nature plus de supernatural.<ref name="mol"/><ref>[https://hts.org.za/index.php/HTS/article/view/341/758#17 What is religion? An African understanding] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160521115514/http://www.hts.org.za/index.php/HTS/article/view/341/758#17 Archived] May 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.</ref> ==Traditions by region== Dis list be limited to a few well-known traditions. ===Central Africa=== *Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) **Bushongo mythology (Congo) **Kongo religion (Congo) **Lugbara mythology (Congo) ** Baluba mythology (Congo) **Mbuti mythology (Congo) *Bwiti (Gabon) *Hausa animism ([[Chad]], [[Gabon]]) *Lotuko mythology (South Sudan) ===East Africa=== *Kushite mythology (central parts of Sudan plus origins insyd Kerma culture) *Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) **Abaluhya mythology (Kenya) **Chagga religion (Tanzania) **Dini Ya Msambwa (Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Kenya) **Gikuyu mythology (Kenya) **Akamba mythology **Aembu mythology (Kenya) *Dinka religion (South Sudan) *Malagasy mythology ([[Madagascar]]) *Maasai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania, Ouebian) *Kalenjin mythology (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania) *Waaqeffanna (Ethiopia den Kenya) *Somali mythology (Somalia) ===Northern Africa=== *Ancient Egyptian religion (Egypt, Sudan) **Kemetism *Kushite mythology (along de Nile valley insyd Egypt den Sudan) *Punic religion (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya) *Traditional Berber religion (Morocco (wey dey include Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Burkina Faso) **Church of the Guanche People (Canary Islands) ===Southern Africa=== *Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) **Lozi mythology (Zambia) **Tumbuka mythology (Malawi) **Zulu traditional religion (South Africa) *Badimo (South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho) *San religion (Botswana, Namibia, den South Africa) *Traditional healers of South Africa *Indigenous religion insyd Zimbabwe ===West Africa=== *Abwoi religion (Nigeria) *Akan religion (Ghana, Ivory Coast) *Dahomean religion (Benin, Togo) *Efik religion (Nigeria, Cameroon) *Edo religion (Benin kingdom, Nigeria) *Hausa animism (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Gana/Ghana, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Togo) *Ijaw religion (Ijo people, [[Nigeria]]) *Godianism (a religion wey be purported to encompass all traditional religions of Africa, primarily dem base on ''Odinala'') *Odinala (Igbo people, [[Nigeria]]) *Asaase Yaa ([[Bono people]], Gana/Ghana den Ivory Coast) *Serer religion (A ƭat Roog) (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania) *Yoruba religion (Nigeria, Benin, Togo) *Vodou (Gana/Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria) *Dogon religion (Mali) ===African diaspora=== Afro-American religions involve ancestor worship den include a creator deity along plus a pantheon of divine spirits such as de Orisha, Loa, Vodun, Nkisi den Alusi, among odas. In addition to de religious syncretism of dese various African traditions, chaw sanso incorporate elements of Folk Catholicism wey dey include folk saints den oda forms of folk religion, Native American religion, Spiritism, Spiritualism, Shamanism (sometimes dey include de use of Entheogens) den European folklore. Various "doctoring" spiritual traditions sanso exist such as Obeah den Hoodoo wich focus on spiritual health.<ref>{{cite book|title=Routes to slavery: direction, ethnicity, and mortality in the transatlantic slave trade|first1=David|last1=Eltis|first2=David|last2=Richardson|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=1997|page=88|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuXEzQZQmawC&pg=PA88|isbn=0-7146-4820-5}}</ref> African religious traditions insyd de Americas fi vary. Dem fi get non-prominent African roots anaa fi be almost wholly African in nature, such as religions like Trinidad Orisha.<ref>{{cite book|title=Spirits, Blood, and Drums: The Orisha Religion in Trinidad|first1=James|last1=Houk|publisher=Temple University Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56639-350-7}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == qigyo4gru196oosq7f3c9aotzb3e5on 104324 104323 2026-06-20T23:40:13Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De beliefs den practices of African people be highly diverse den dey include various ethnic religions.<ref name="mol">Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) [[Molefi Kete Asante]]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ndlovu|first=Tommy Matshakayile|title=Imikhuba lamasiko AmaNdebele|date=1995|publisher=Mambo Press|others=Doris Ndlovu, Bekithemba S. Ncube|isbn=0-86922-624-X|location=Gweru, Gasiya Zimbabwe|oclc=34114180}}</ref> Generally, dese traditions be oral rather dan scriptural wey dem be passed down from one generation to another thru narratives, songs, myths, den festivals.<ref>{{cite book | last=Juergensmeyer | first=Mark | title=The Oxford handbook of global religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford | date=2006 | isbn=0-19-513798-1 | oclc=64084086}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Mbiti | first=John S. | title=Introduction to African religion | publisher=Heinemann Educational Books | publication-place=Oxford [England] | date=1991 | isbn=0-435-94002-3 | oclc=24376978}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nweke |first=Kizito Chinedu |date=2022-12-25 |title=Responding to new Imageries in African indigenous Spiritualties |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/Religious/article/view/20246 |journal=Religious: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama dan Lintas Budaya |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=271–282 |doi=10.15575/rjsalb.v6i3.20246 |s2cid=255213985 |issn=2528-7249|doi-access=free }}</ref> Dem dey include beliefs insyd spirits den higher den lower gods, sometimes dey include a supreme being, as well as de veneration of de dead, use of magic, den African traditional medicine. Chaw religions fi be described as animistic<ref name="Kimmerle 15">{{Cite journal|last=Kimmerle|first=Heinz|date=2006-04-11|title=The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism|journal=The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa|language=en-US|volume=2|issue=2|page=15|doi=10.4102/td.v2i2.277|issn=2415-2005|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Vontress 2005 124–137">{{Citation|last=Vontress|first=Clemmont E.|title=Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa|date=2005|url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml|work=Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy|pages=124–137|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|access-date=2019-10-31|doi=10.4135/9781452231648|isbn=978-0-7619-3047-1|url-access=subscription}}</ref> plus various polytheistic den pantheistic aspects.<ref name="mol"/><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section6.shtml An African Story] [[BBC]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20151102074637/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section6.shtml Archived] November 2, 2015, at the [[Wayback Machine]].</ref> De role of humanity be generally seen as one of harmonizing nature plus de supernatural.<ref name="mol"/><ref>[https://hts.org.za/index.php/HTS/article/view/341/758#17 What is religion? An African understanding] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160521115514/http://www.hts.org.za/index.php/HTS/article/view/341/758#17 Archived] May 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.</ref> ==Traditions by region== Dis list be limited to a few well-known traditions. ===Central Africa=== *Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) **Bushongo mythology (Congo) **Kongo religion (Congo) **Lugbara mythology (Congo) ** Baluba mythology (Congo) **Mbuti mythology (Congo) *Bwiti (Gabon) *Hausa animism ([[Chad]], [[Gabon]]) *Lotuko mythology (South Sudan) ===East Africa=== *Kushite mythology (central parts of Sudan plus origins insyd Kerma culture) *Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) **Abaluhya mythology (Kenya) **Chagga religion (Tanzania) **Dini Ya Msambwa (Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Kenya) **Gikuyu mythology (Kenya) **Akamba mythology **Aembu mythology (Kenya) *Dinka religion (South Sudan) *Malagasy mythology ([[Madagascar]]) *Maasai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania, Ouebian) *Kalenjin mythology (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania) *Waaqeffanna (Ethiopia den Kenya) *Somali mythology (Somalia) ===Northern Africa=== *Ancient Egyptian religion (Egypt, Sudan) **Kemetism *Kushite mythology (along de Nile valley insyd Egypt den Sudan) *Punic religion (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya) *Traditional Berber religion (Morocco (wey dey include Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Burkina Faso) **Church of the Guanche People (Canary Islands) ===Southern Africa=== *Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) **Lozi mythology (Zambia) **Tumbuka mythology (Malawi) **Zulu traditional religion (South Africa) *Badimo (South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho) *San religion (Botswana, Namibia, den South Africa) *Traditional healers of South Africa *Indigenous religion insyd Zimbabwe ===West Africa=== *Abwoi religion (Nigeria) *Akan religion (Ghana, Ivory Coast) *Dahomean religion (Benin, Togo) *Efik religion (Nigeria, Cameroon) *Edo religion (Benin kingdom, Nigeria) *Hausa animism (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Gana/Ghana, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Togo) *Ijaw religion (Ijo people, [[Nigeria]]) *Godianism (a religion wey be purported to encompass all traditional religions of Africa, primarily dem base on ''Odinala'') *Odinala (Igbo people, [[Nigeria]]) *Asaase Yaa ([[Bono people]], Gana/Ghana den Ivory Coast) *Serer religion (A ƭat Roog) (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania) *Yoruba religion (Nigeria, Benin, Togo) *Vodou (Gana/Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria) *Dogon religion (Mali) ===African diaspora=== Afro-American religions involve ancestor worship den include a creator deity along plus a pantheon of divine spirits such as de Orisha, Loa, Vodun, Nkisi den Alusi, among odas. In addition to de religious syncretism of dese various African traditions, chaw sanso incorporate elements of Folk Catholicism wey dey include folk saints den oda forms of folk religion, Native American religion, Spiritism, Spiritualism, Shamanism (sometimes dey include de use of Entheogens) den European folklore. Various "doctoring" spiritual traditions sanso exist such as Obeah den Hoodoo wich focus on spiritual health.<ref>{{cite book|title=Routes to slavery: direction, ethnicity, and mortality in the transatlantic slave trade|first1=David|last1=Eltis|first2=David|last2=Richardson|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=1997|page=88|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuXEzQZQmawC&pg=PA88|isbn=0-7146-4820-5}}</ref> African religious traditions insyd de Americas fi vary. Dem fi get non-prominent African roots anaa fi be almost wholly African in nature, such as religions like Trinidad Orisha.<ref>{{cite book|title=Spirits, Blood, and Drums: The Orisha Religion in Trinidad|first1=James|last1=Houk|publisher=Temple University Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56639-350-7}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q386498|c=Category:African Religion|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} *[http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/ Afrika world.net] A website with extensive links and information about traditional African religions {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601074020/http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/ |date=2019-06-01 }} *[https://culture-exchange.blog/animism-modern-africa culture-exchange.blog/animism-modern-africa] An article explaining the parallels between traditional and modern religious practices in Africa {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:African Traditional Religion}} [[Category:Traditional African religions| ]] [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Religion insyd Africa]] [[Category:Religion-related lists by continent]] [[Category:Religious places]] 8udhz54i5echbear8rrlushbkx14fjj 0 27436 104328 101474 2026-06-20T23:56:30Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104328 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Smart water system for Africa''' dey refer to de use of information and communication technologies (ICT) — such as de Internet of Things (IoT), smart sensors, mobile payment systems, den solar energy — to manage, distribute, den purify clean water den agricultural water across Africa. == Background den issues == === Water stress den urban growth === Insyd [[Africa]], rapid population growth den urbanization place significant pressure on limited water resources. According to de [[United Nations]], over 400 million people on de continent dey lack safe access to clean drinking water.<ref name="vinci2025">{{cite web |title=Accès à l’eau en Afrique : beaucoup de progrès, encore des défis |url=https://www.vinci.com/emag/acces-leau-en-afrique-beaucoup-de-progres-encore-des-defis |website=VINCI |date=2025-11-04 |access-date=2026-06-06}}</ref> === Technical den financial losses === Traditional water distribution systems dey suffer from high levels of non-revenue water (NRW), wey dey include physical leaks in aging pipelines den illegal connections. Insyd chaw African cities, dese losses dey exceed 40% of total water produced, wey dey threaten de financial sustainability of water utilities. == Technologies dem use == === Smart meters den prepaid systems === Smart water meters be a key component of modern water systems. Dem often dey operate thru prepaid mobile platforms (such as Mobile Money), wey dey allow users to purchase specific volumes of water credit. * Consumer benefit: Better control of consumption den reduced billing disputes. * Operator benefit: Improved revenue collection den financial stability for maintenance.<ref name="worldbank2024">{{cite web |title=Services urbains : les systèmes d’eau prépayée en Afrique |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/fr/water/services-urbains-les-syst-mes-d-eau-pr-pay-e-en-afrique |website=World Bank Blogs |access-date=2026-06-06}}</ref> === Automated water kiosks === Insyd rural den peri-urban areas widout piped connections, traditional water points increasingly be replaced by solar-powered automated kiosks (dem often call “water ATMs”). Users fi access water using smart cards anaa RFID-enabled systems.<ref name="susteq2024">{{cite web |title=Water ATMs and smart water solutions |url=https://susteq.nl/?lang=fr/ |website=Susteq |date=2024-08-21 |access-date=2026-06-06}}</ref> === Remote monitoring den IoT === Water infrastructure monitoring dey use low-power wide-area networks such as LoRaWAN den NB-IoT: * Pressure den flow sensors detect leaks den identify dema locations. * Water quality sensors monitor pH, turbidity, den chlorine levels to ensure safety.<ref name="wearetech2026">{{cite web |title=Comment l’Afrique s’approprie l’Internet des Objets pour développer son secteur agricole |url=https://www.wearetech.africa/home-fr-fr/fils/dossier/comment-l-afrique-s-approprie-l-internet-des-objets-pour-developper-son-secteur-agricole |website=We Are Tech Africa |access-date=2026-06-06}}</ref> == Regional trends den local industry == === West Africa === De region be increasingly moving toward local manufacturing of smart water technologies. * [[Burkina Faso]]: Development of SOCIMAH for local production of smart meters den water equipment.<ref name="horonya2026">{{cite web |title=Le Burkina crée la Socimah pour produire des équipements hydrauliques |url=https://www.horonyafinance.com/le-burkina-cree-la-socimah-dotee-dun-capital-dun-milliard-de-fcfa-pour-produire-des-equipements-hydrauliques/ |website=Horonya Finance |date=2026-05-29 |access-date=2026-06-06}}</ref> * [[Senegal]]: SONES dey use digital monitoring systems to manage rural boreholes den improve urban water supply.<ref name="enquete2026">{{cite web |title=La SONES en chiffres et en lettres |url=https://www.enqueteplus.com/content/c%C3%A9l%C3%A9bration-de-30-ans-d%E2%80%99existence-la-sones-en-chiffres-et-en-lettres |website=EnQuête+ |access-date=2026-06-06}}</ref> === East Africa === Kenya be a leader in integrating mobile payments into public water services, wey public-private partnerships den companies such as Grundfos support, especially for rural kiosk systems. == Limitations den challenges == Large-scale deployment of smart water systems dey face several challenges: * High cost of technology den infrastructure * Limited telecom coverage insyd rural areas * Lack of skilled technicians for maintenance den repairs == References == <references /> [[Category:Africa]] [[Category:Technology insyd society]] s3wrclfj6sgwv7asv63nzw2gwmrrv3o 0 27472 104330 101867 2026-06-21T00:07:38Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Geba''' (French: ''Rivière Geba'', Portuguese: ''Rio Geba'') be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. E dey flow for approximately {{convert|550|km}} thru [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E sanso be called de '''Kayanga''' insyd Senegal. == Geography == === Route === De Geba dey rise insyd de northernmost area of [[Guinea]] insyd de Fouta Djallon highlands, wey dey pass thru southern [[Senegal]], den dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]] insyd [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E be about {{convert|550|km}} in total length.<ref name="eosnap">{{cite web |title=Golden Sediments from Geba River, Guinea Bissau |url=http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927094342/http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |archive-date=27 September 2020 |accessdate=8 October 2015 |website=Earth Snapshot |publisher=Chelys}}</ref> == References == 09cqk53lijppqc9ilyg14l2wtb5oq3l 104331 104330 2026-06-21T11:47:47Z DaSupremo 9 /* Geography */ Improve article 104331 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Geba''' (French: ''Rivière Geba'', Portuguese: ''Rio Geba'') be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. E dey flow for approximately {{convert|550|km}} thru [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E sanso be called de '''Kayanga''' insyd Senegal. == Geography == === Route === De Geba dey rise insyd de northernmost area of [[Guinea]] insyd de Fouta Djallon highlands, wey dey pass thru southern [[Senegal]], den dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]] insyd [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E be about {{convert|550|km}} in total length.<ref name="eosnap">{{cite web |title=Golden Sediments from Geba River, Guinea Bissau |url=http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927094342/http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |archive-date=27 September 2020 |accessdate=8 October 2015 |website=Earth Snapshot |publisher=Chelys}}</ref> E be largely a lowland river, plus a higher flow during de rainy season (from June to October). De areas around de lower reaches of de river be floodplains wey be surrounded by savanna den forest, plus a high population density based around subsistence farming.<ref name="Z2017">{{cite journal |last1=Zúquete |first1=Sara Tudela |last2=Coelho |first2=João |last3=Rosa |first3=Fernanda |last4=Vaz |first4=Yolanda |last5=Cassamá |first5=Bernardo |last6=Padre |first6=Ludovina |last7=Santos |first7=Dulce |last8=Basto |first8=Afonso P. |last9=Leitão |first9=Alexandre |title=Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) infestations in cattle along Geba River basin in Guinea-Bissau |journal=Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases |date=January 2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=161–169 |doi=10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.10.013 |url=https://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/bitstream/10174/20963/1/Tick%20Acari_%20Ixodidae%20infestations%20in%20cattle%20along%20Geba%20River%20basin%20in.pdf |access-date=3 April 2026}}</ref>{{rp|162}} == References == h1yiem35acybn8wkhk8d0u39ah1eu67 104332 104331 2026-06-21T11:55:41Z DaSupremo 9 /* Geography */ Improve article 104332 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Geba''' (French: ''Rivière Geba'', Portuguese: ''Rio Geba'') be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. E dey flow for approximately {{convert|550|km}} thru [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E sanso be called de '''Kayanga''' insyd Senegal. == Geography == === Route === De Geba dey rise insyd de northernmost area of [[Guinea]] insyd de Fouta Djallon highlands, wey dey pass thru southern [[Senegal]], den dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]] insyd [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E be about {{convert|550|km}} in total length.<ref name="eosnap">{{cite web |title=Golden Sediments from Geba River, Guinea Bissau |url=http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927094342/http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |archive-date=27 September 2020 |accessdate=8 October 2015 |website=Earth Snapshot |publisher=Chelys}}</ref> E be largely a lowland river, plus a higher flow during de rainy season (from June to October). De areas around de lower reaches of de river be floodplains wey be surrounded by savanna den forest, plus a high population density based around subsistence farming.<ref name="Z2017">{{cite journal |last1=Zúquete |first1=Sara Tudela |last2=Coelho |first2=João |last3=Rosa |first3=Fernanda |last4=Vaz |first4=Yolanda |last5=Cassamá |first5=Bernardo |last6=Padre |first6=Ludovina |last7=Santos |first7=Dulce |last8=Basto |first8=Afonso P. |last9=Leitão |first9=Alexandre |title=Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) infestations in cattle along Geba River basin in Guinea-Bissau |journal=Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases |date=January 2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=161–169 |doi=10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.10.013 |url=https://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/bitstream/10174/20963/1/Tick%20Acari_%20Ixodidae%20infestations%20in%20cattle%20along%20Geba%20River%20basin%20in.pdf |access-date=3 April 2026}}</ref>{{rp|162}} De mouth of de Geba be a wide tidal estuary wey be shared plus de [[Corubal River]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sambou |first1=Saly |last2=Dacosta |first2=Honore |last3=Diouf |first3=Rene Ndimag |last4=Diouf |first4=Ibrahima |last5=Kane |first5=Alioune |title=Hydropluviometric variability in non-Sahelian West Africa: case of the Koliba/Corubal River Basin (Guinea and Guinea-Bissau) |journal=Proceedings of IAHS |date=16 September 2020 |volume=383 |pages=171–183 |doi=10.5194/piahs-383-171-2020 |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/383/171/2020/ |access-date=3 April 2026 |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |language=en |doi-access=free|hdl=11343/281039 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> De tidal range fi be as high as {{convert|7|m}} within de estuary (dem sanso call de ''Geba Channel'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dièye |first1=Arame |last2=Marchesiello |first2=Patrick |last3=Sow |first3=Bamol Ali |last4=Dieng |first4=Habib Boubacar |last5=Thuan |first5=Duong Hai |last6=Descroix |first6=Luc |title=Tidal amplification and distortion in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa |journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science |date=August 2025 |volume=320 |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2025.109318 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771425001969 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Ein tributaries dey include de Anambe, Gambiel, den Campossa (anaa Colufe) rivers. De Colufe River dey join de Geba at Bafatá. De Geba dey share a broad estuary plus de Corubal River (wich e dey join near Xime). Bissau, de capital of Guinea-Bissau dey locate along de north shore of dis estuary. De estuary dey widen further as de river dey flow into de Atlantic around de Bijagós Islands archipelago.<ref name="NASA">{{cite web |last1=Patel |first1=Kasha |date=18 June 2018 |title=The Meandering Estuaries of Guinea–Bissau - NASA Science |url=https://science.nasa.gov/earth/earth-observatory/the-meandering-estuaries-of-guineabissau-92266/ |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=NASA Science}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Campredon |first1=Pierre |title=The Wetland Book |last2=Catry |first2=Paulo |date=2016 |publisher=Springer, Dordrecht |pages=1–8 |language=en |chapter=Bijagos Archipelago (Guinea-Bissau) |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_158-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_158-1 |chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Ashley |last2=Thieme |first2=Michele |title=Northern Upper Guinea |url=https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/511 |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=Freshwater Ecoregions of the World}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == ori1fpwuys4d6a5hh1ugqd3ujbb8qmt 0 27476 104329 102021 2026-06-21T00:01:56Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q4691641}} De '''Agbado River''' be river of [[Benin]].<ref>Rand McNally, ''The New International Atlas'', 1993.</ref> E dey flow thru Maxi territory go de north of Abomey.<ref name="HerskovitsHerskovits1964">{{cite book|last1=Herskovits|first1=Melville Jean|last2=Herskovits|first2=Frances Shapiro|title=An outline of Dahomean religious belief|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofdahomea0000hers|url-access=registration|accessdate=30 April 2012|year=1964|publisher=Kraus|page=[https://archive.org/details/outlineofdahomea0000hers/page/63 63]}}</ref> Edey flow south from ein source insyd northern Collines Department, wey e dey pass de town of Savalou, den discharge go de Zou River insyd wey dey Atchérigbé Classified Forest near Setto.<ref>''[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/africa/txu-oclc-6589746-sheet17-6th-ed.jpg Sheet 17: Lagos]'' (Map). 1:2,000,000. Series 2201. Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center. April 1973.</ref> ==References== [[Category:Rivers of Benin]] 4zd3385c3dkld4osc3v9e14ccjw7fzn 0 27527 104184 102723 2026-06-20T19:21:00Z Kwasi Rex 4961 Created by translating the section "Length, Basin, and Hydrology" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359865396|Black Volta]]" 104184 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Black Volta''' or '''Mouhoun''' (French: ''Volta noire'')<ref name="amisigo">{{cite book |last1=Amisigo |first1=Barnabas Akurigo |title=Modelling Riverflow in the Volta Basin of West Africa: A Data-driven Framework |date=2005 |publisher=Cuvilier |isbn=9783865377012 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXya_-FfJAC&q=nakanbe+volta&pg=PA27 |accessdate=18 July 2018}}</ref> na river wey dey flow pass [[Burkina Faso]] for about 1,352 km (840 mi) go join White Volta for [[Dagbon]], [[Ghana]], for the upper side of Lake Volta.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm|title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes|website=www.countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-08-17}}</ref> Ebi one of the three main branches of the Volta River, together plus White Volta and Red Volta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 1959-1984) |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920045902/https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-01-15 |website=Flags of the World}}</ref> The source of Black Volta dey Cascades Region for Burkina Faso, near Mount Tenakourou, wey be the highest place for the country. As the river dey flow go down, e form part of the border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and later between Ivory Coast and Ghana. Inside Ghana, e separate Savannah Region and Bono Region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=CONFIRMED: Results of the 2018 Referendum on new regions|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/confirmed-results-of-the-2018-referendum-on-new-regions.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2020-08-18|newspaper=Daily Graphic|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /> Dem build the Bui Dam, one hydroelectric power station, on top the river just south of Bui National Park, and the river pass through the middle of the park.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Bui National Park|url=http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|website=Ghana Wildlife Division|accessdate=23 April 2018|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223183647/http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==References== [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ghana–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] == Length, Basin, and Hydrology == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> For some parts of de upper side of de river, de water no dey flow plenty all year round. During de dry season, the amount of water wey dey flow inside the river dey reduce because rainfall no too dey fall for the savanna climate area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EBSCO - Research Databases, EBooks, Discovery Service |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> ia9pso0hh5g78h20dud1dev3nzs8fia 104185 104184 2026-06-20T19:24:11Z Kwasi Rex 4961 104185 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Black Volta''' or '''Mouhoun''' (French: ''Volta noire'')<ref name="amisigo">{{cite book |last1=Amisigo |first1=Barnabas Akurigo |title=Modelling Riverflow in the Volta Basin of West Africa: A Data-driven Framework |date=2005 |publisher=Cuvilier |isbn=9783865377012 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXya_-FfJAC&q=nakanbe+volta&pg=PA27 |accessdate=18 July 2018}}</ref> na river wey dey flow pass [[Burkina Faso]] for about 1,352 km (840 mi) go join White Volta for [[Dagbon]], [[Ghana]], for the upper side of Lake Volta.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm|title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes|website=www.countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-08-17}}</ref> Ebi one of the three main branches of the Volta River, together plus White Volta and Red Volta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 1959-1984) |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920045902/https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-01-15 |website=Flags of the World}}</ref> The source of Black Volta dey Cascades Region for Burkina Faso, near Mount Tenakourou, wey be the highest place for the country. As the river dey flow go down, e form part of the border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and later between Ivory Coast and Ghana. Inside Ghana, e separate Savannah Region and Bono Region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=CONFIRMED: Results of the 2018 Referendum on new regions|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/confirmed-results-of-the-2018-referendum-on-new-regions.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2020-08-18|newspaper=Daily Graphic|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /> Dem build the Bui Dam, one hydroelectric power station, on top the river just south of Bui National Park, and the river pass through the middle of the park.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Bui National Park|url=http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|website=Ghana Wildlife Division|accessdate=23 April 2018|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223183647/http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ghana–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] == Length, Basin, and Hydrology == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> For some parts of de upper side of de river, de water no dey flow plenty all year round. During de dry season, the amount of water wey dey flow inside the river dey reduce because rainfall no too dey fall for the savanna climate area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EBSCO - Research Databases, EBooks, Discovery Service |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> == References == 9x6ohgbnsxybmx4a91k64a9un007rbz 104292 104185 2026-06-20T21:48:25Z Kwasi Rex 4961 Created by translating the section "Course and Geographical Role" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359865396|Black Volta]]" 104292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Black Volta''' or '''Mouhoun''' (French: ''Volta noire'')<ref name="amisigo">{{cite book |last1=Amisigo |first1=Barnabas Akurigo |title=Modelling Riverflow in the Volta Basin of West Africa: A Data-driven Framework |date=2005 |publisher=Cuvilier |isbn=9783865377012 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXya_-FfJAC&q=nakanbe+volta&pg=PA27 |accessdate=18 July 2018}}</ref> na river wey dey flow pass [[Burkina Faso]] for about 1,352 km (840 mi) go join White Volta for [[Dagbon]], [[Ghana]], for the upper side of Lake Volta.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm|title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes|website=www.countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-08-17}}</ref> Ebi one of the three main branches of the Volta River, together plus White Volta and Red Volta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 1959-1984) |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920045902/https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-01-15 |website=Flags of the World}}</ref> The source of Black Volta dey Cascades Region for Burkina Faso, near Mount Tenakourou, wey be the highest place for the country. As the river dey flow go down, e form part of the border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and later between Ivory Coast and Ghana. Inside Ghana, e separate Savannah Region and Bono Region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=CONFIRMED: Results of the 2018 Referendum on new regions|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/confirmed-results-of-the-2018-referendum-on-new-regions.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2020-08-18|newspaper=Daily Graphic|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /> Dem build the Bui Dam, one hydroelectric power station, on top the river just south of Bui National Park, and the river pass through the middle of the park.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Bui National Park|url=http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|website=Ghana Wildlife Division|accessdate=23 April 2018|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223183647/http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ghana–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] == Length, Basin, and Hydrology == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> For some parts of de upper side of de river, de water no dey flow plenty all year round. During de dry season, the amount of water wey dey flow inside the river dey reduce because rainfall no too dey fall for the savanna climate area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EBSCO - Research Databases, EBooks, Discovery Service |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> == References == == Course and Geographical Role == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> Di river dey flow go south side, and for some places e dey serve as international border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and also between [[Ghana]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Black-Volta-River}}</ref> For Ghana, di river continue dey flow go inside di country and later e join contribute water to Lake Volta, one of di biggest man-made lakes for di world. Dem create Lake Volta through di Akosombo Dam wey dey for di Volta River system.<ref name=":0" /> Black Volta be part of one bigger river system wey include White Volta and Red Volta too. Downstream, all these rivers join together form the main Volta River. gee3wn9f5ajw536inlg58ja2782646g 104294 104292 2026-06-20T21:50:43Z Kwasi Rex 4961 104294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Black Volta''' or '''Mouhoun''' (French: ''Volta noire'')<ref name="amisigo">{{cite book |last1=Amisigo |first1=Barnabas Akurigo |title=Modelling Riverflow in the Volta Basin of West Africa: A Data-driven Framework |date=2005 |publisher=Cuvilier |isbn=9783865377012 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXya_-FfJAC&q=nakanbe+volta&pg=PA27 |accessdate=18 July 2018}}</ref> na river wey dey flow pass [[Burkina Faso]] for about 1,352 km (840 mi) go join White Volta for [[Dagbon]], [[Ghana]], for the upper side of Lake Volta.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm|title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes|website=www.countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-08-17}}</ref> Ebi one of the three main branches of the Volta River, together plus White Volta and Red Volta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 1959-1984) |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920045902/https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-01-15 |website=Flags of the World}}</ref> The source of Black Volta dey Cascades Region for Burkina Faso, near Mount Tenakourou, wey be the highest place for the country. As the river dey flow go down, e form part of the border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and later between Ivory Coast and Ghana. Inside Ghana, e separate Savannah Region and Bono Region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=CONFIRMED: Results of the 2018 Referendum on new regions|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/confirmed-results-of-the-2018-referendum-on-new-regions.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2020-08-18|newspaper=Daily Graphic|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /> Dem build the Bui Dam, one hydroelectric power station, on top the river just south of Bui National Park, and the river pass through the middle of the park.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Bui National Park|url=http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|website=Ghana Wildlife Division|accessdate=23 April 2018|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223183647/http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ghana–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] == Length, Basin, and Hydrology == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> For some parts of de upper side of de river, de water no dey flow plenty all year round. During de dry season, the amount of water wey dey flow inside the river dey reduce because rainfall no too dey fall for the savanna climate area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EBSCO - Research Databases, EBooks, Discovery Service |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> == Course and Geographical Role == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> Di river dey flow go south side, and for some places e dey serve as international border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and also between [[Ghana]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Black-Volta-River}}</ref> For Ghana, di river continue dey flow go inside di country and later e join contribute water to Lake Volta, one of di biggest man-made lakes for di world. Dem create Lake Volta through di Akosombo Dam wey dey for di Volta River system.<ref name=":0" /> Black Volta be part of one bigger river system wey include White Volta and Red Volta too. Downstream, all these rivers join together form the main Volta River. == References == 3gzutotpy6kz13it2gnaxs4k6u44muh 104299 104294 2026-06-20T21:53:59Z Kwasi Rex 4961 Created by translating the section "Hydropower and Infrastructure" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359865396|Black Volta]]" 104299 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Black Volta''' or '''Mouhoun''' (French: ''Volta noire'')<ref name="amisigo">{{cite book |last1=Amisigo |first1=Barnabas Akurigo |title=Modelling Riverflow in the Volta Basin of West Africa: A Data-driven Framework |date=2005 |publisher=Cuvilier |isbn=9783865377012 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXya_-FfJAC&q=nakanbe+volta&pg=PA27 |accessdate=18 July 2018}}</ref> na river wey dey flow pass [[Burkina Faso]] for about 1,352 km (840 mi) go join White Volta for [[Dagbon]], [[Ghana]], for the upper side of Lake Volta.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm|title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes|website=www.countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-08-17}}</ref> Ebi one of the three main branches of the Volta River, together plus White Volta and Red Volta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 1959-1984) |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920045902/https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-01-15 |website=Flags of the World}}</ref> The source of Black Volta dey Cascades Region for Burkina Faso, near Mount Tenakourou, wey be the highest place for the country. As the river dey flow go down, e form part of the border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and later between Ivory Coast and Ghana. Inside Ghana, e separate Savannah Region and Bono Region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=CONFIRMED: Results of the 2018 Referendum on new regions|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/confirmed-results-of-the-2018-referendum-on-new-regions.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2020-08-18|newspaper=Daily Graphic|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /> Dem build the Bui Dam, one hydroelectric power station, on top the river just south of Bui National Park, and the river pass through the middle of the park.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Bui National Park|url=http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|website=Ghana Wildlife Division|accessdate=23 April 2018|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223183647/http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ghana–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] == Length, Basin, and Hydrology == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> For some parts of de upper side of de river, de water no dey flow plenty all year round. During de dry season, the amount of water wey dey flow inside the river dey reduce because rainfall no too dey fall for the savanna climate area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EBSCO - Research Databases, EBooks, Discovery Service |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> == Course and Geographical Role == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> Di river dey flow go south side, and for some places e dey serve as international border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and also between [[Ghana]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Black-Volta-River}}</ref> For Ghana, di river continue dey flow go inside di country and later e join contribute water to Lake Volta, one of di biggest man-made lakes for di world. Dem create Lake Volta through di Akosombo Dam wey dey for di Volta River system.<ref name=":0" /> Black Volta be part of one bigger river system wey include White Volta and Red Volta too. Downstream, all these rivers join together form the main Volta River. == References == == Hydropower and Infrastructure == One of di most important infrastructures wey dey for Black Volta be di Bui Dam for Ghana. Di dam be hydroelectric project wey dey help produce electricity for di country.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di dam too dey affect how di river water dey flow, how irrigation systems dey work, and di environmental conditions around di river basin area. kcratkiqknmor67lnpdg32vtubxrgee 104301 104299 2026-06-20T21:54:58Z Kwasi Rex 4961 104301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Black Volta''' or '''Mouhoun''' (French: ''Volta noire'')<ref name="amisigo">{{cite book |last1=Amisigo |first1=Barnabas Akurigo |title=Modelling Riverflow in the Volta Basin of West Africa: A Data-driven Framework |date=2005 |publisher=Cuvilier |isbn=9783865377012 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXya_-FfJAC&q=nakanbe+volta&pg=PA27 |accessdate=18 July 2018}}</ref> na river wey dey flow pass [[Burkina Faso]] for about 1,352 km (840 mi) go join White Volta for [[Dagbon]], [[Ghana]], for the upper side of Lake Volta.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm|title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes|website=www.countrystudies.us|access-date=2017-08-17}}</ref> Ebi one of the three main branches of the Volta River, together plus White Volta and Red Volta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper Volta (Burkina Faso, 1959-1984) |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920045902/https://www.fotw.info/flags/bf_uv.html |archive-date=2020-09-20 |access-date=2020-01-15 |website=Flags of the World}}</ref> The source of Black Volta dey Cascades Region for Burkina Faso, near Mount Tenakourou, wey be the highest place for the country. As the river dey flow go down, e form part of the border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and later between Ivory Coast and Ghana. Inside Ghana, e separate Savannah Region and Bono Region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=CONFIRMED: Results of the 2018 Referendum on new regions|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/confirmed-results-of-the-2018-referendum-on-new-regions.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2020-08-18|newspaper=Daily Graphic|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /> Dem build the Bui Dam, one hydroelectric power station, on top the river just south of Bui National Park, and the river pass through the middle of the park.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Bui National Park|url=http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|website=Ghana Wildlife Division|accessdate=23 April 2018|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223183647/http://ghanawildlife.org/bui.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ghana–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] == Length, Basin, and Hydrology == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> For some parts of de upper side of de river, de water no dey flow plenty all year round. During de dry season, the amount of water wey dey flow inside the river dey reduce because rainfall no too dey fall for the savanna climate area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EBSCO - Research Databases, EBooks, Discovery Service |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> == Course and Geographical Role == Black Volta River get about 1,352 kilometres length and dat make am one of the biggest rivers for the Volta Basin system.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di area wey Black Volta dey drain water from cover about 147,000 square kilometres, depending on how dem do the estimation. E be very important part of the bigger Volta Basin, wey be one of the biggest river basins for [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://wrc.gov.gh/ova_por/black-volta/}}</ref> Di river dey flow go south side, and for some places e dey serve as international border between Ghana and Burkina Faso, and also between [[Ghana]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Black-Volta-River}}</ref> For Ghana, di river continue dey flow go inside di country and later e join contribute water to Lake Volta, one of di biggest man-made lakes for di world. Dem create Lake Volta through di Akosombo Dam wey dey for di Volta River system.<ref name=":0" /> Black Volta be part of one bigger river system wey include White Volta and Red Volta too. Downstream, all these rivers join together form the main Volta River. == Hydropower and Infrastructure == One of di most important infrastructures wey dey for Black Volta be di Bui Dam for Ghana. Di dam be hydroelectric project wey dey help produce electricity for di country.<ref>{{Citation |title=Black Volta |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Volta&oldid=1359675764 |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en}}</ref> Di dam too dey affect how di river water dey flow, how irrigation systems dey work, and di environmental conditions around di river basin area. == References == qk6rljol1pu4mrn1n2nf74unrjyypsn 0 27612 104160 104089 2026-06-20T15:05:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104160 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human Resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. == References == 68b973kchuvu42hbocvsjbeetg9gxed 104161 104160 2026-06-20T15:06:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104161 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd. == References == 5cldohw27ygfy7i3in9gksrcd5kn1cx 104162 104161 2026-06-20T15:06:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104162 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> == References == fla51c1jgtio8nahc9nz9862kpbxy4g 104163 104162 2026-06-20T15:07:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104163 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. == References == lktq741m6gy49lc566datld96cdrvy8 104164 104163 2026-06-20T15:07:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104164 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. == References == amv7czhzx7todhax75lxuwgx5wdkk0m 104165 104164 2026-06-20T15:07:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104165 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. == References == bkxynhb554jo74e6ne9lutk3rabj306 104166 104165 2026-06-20T15:08:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104166 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. == References == ntlf5hvek8g2invwtb3mbxzq462jakn 104167 104166 2026-06-20T15:08:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104167 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd. == References == onzovirvnxrwy10vbms0ykbshxdqqe4 104168 104167 2026-06-20T15:09:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104168 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref> == References == n6je5e3u3jilvdhucmvjanfg3sd6z27 104169 104168 2026-06-20T15:09:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104169 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == References == h2gmgvhkja9b540bp26fgmdkomon6fj 104170 104169 2026-06-20T15:10:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104170 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == == References == 8u3ghhvbbh0ieqrnr0g1cnljbetl31x 104171 104170 2026-06-20T15:11:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104171 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]] == References == fj8pbixjns2gjzz51v538d4r5wefofy 104186 104171 2026-06-20T19:32:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104186 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd. == References == rfggqe35bldu329n73o52rsy6f1kqn9 104187 104186 2026-06-20T19:33:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104187 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == 2nbqg1fxx0v070mz3xsd7epfewkz9g0 104188 104187 2026-06-20T19:34:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104188 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd. == References == njkpyglq3ux6r85wbxtgr3ztejlq9bl 104189 104188 2026-06-20T19:36:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104189 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> == References == lgoi3lcrm5ecxm0gn1z1takfifs6fwu 104190 104189 2026-06-20T19:38:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104190 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. == References == 458dfriawpvec6rcc5jsvqedtdtknjr 104191 104190 2026-06-20T19:39:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104191 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters. == References == 9xy9tu437twnfcka9x28kp0m55rl929 104192 104191 2026-06-20T19:39:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104192 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> == References == qofw1zx10jurzqje2i6i64g16sqz81z 104193 104192 2026-06-20T19:40:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === == References == bjq6x0lpfpbs1y3t40x8pz6uq3mjisb 104194 104193 2026-06-20T19:41:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104194 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". == References == 3o830vy14jyekl10k0yoy0tjwhxxbfd 104195 104194 2026-06-20T19:42:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104195 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services. == References == 8e2jd5knw3ucpre2u8co14oxt8uzqhy 104196 104195 2026-06-20T19:42:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104196 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> == References == gal7amjbaj2fdji987l6n1ncnwyiq1p 104197 104196 2026-06-20T19:43:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104197 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. == References == s5lu1ff4onqjig8gdlka859yq3xm0m3 104198 104197 2026-06-20T19:44:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104198 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water. == References == tfecfe6nrjrwm1136x9a4ae22uvtpqd 104199 104198 2026-06-20T19:44:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104199 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> == References == jf1ulcg7lzjc3m3e2epfo1od5n0eu7n 104200 104199 2026-06-20T19:45:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104200 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems. == References == brvevzxef62gogp7q43zofc2a5zrmwe 104201 104200 2026-06-20T19:46:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104201 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> == References == 6i6uhfhb77yvl6a7ghudmetz3isfbo0 104202 104201 2026-06-20T19:47:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104202 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === == References == k5j3yyysamk9mt84gm3swvr8zrprpeb 104203 104202 2026-06-20T19:47:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997. == References == ljsqgadfxtmncpmr4n0if102bkrfw4c 104204 104203 2026-06-20T19:48:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104204 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> == References == ov9y4nmwg3uykdy9v3ji64o3jn0uzy9 104205 104204 2026-06-20T19:49:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104205 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. == References == 4bgpoe5k1d8slqs04a4x4ee6usbpzjp 104206 104205 2026-06-20T19:49:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104206 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. == References == g7mgcrh8675b7c8yp39jtboxma9hcfm 104207 104206 2026-06-20T19:50:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104207 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. == References == 4mab1s7krwaylkzeg591c5eoevpw3yd 104208 104207 2026-06-20T19:53:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104208 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. == References == tm2ob9n5tlbhg76mmozdcxrh9dmyvom 104209 104208 2026-06-20T19:53:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104209 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. == References == 59mlso46xwzvqpb9bi5ujze8xxhx34k 104210 104209 2026-06-20T19:54:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. == References == 71eauerwvx7vw31aeo0vsxa58sel75p 104211 104210 2026-06-20T19:55:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104211 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities. == References == g5tj8thnvn8i3ro2ywtqpr0nc6902wc 104212 104211 2026-06-20T19:56:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104212 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> == References == szs4onl6fsm1y4q80epbhg55ao86j6f 104213 104212 2026-06-20T19:57:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104213 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. == References == eiymadm59lltymiattfa6pio699536c 104214 104213 2026-06-20T19:58:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104214 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === == References == m4di2a40xtm14vg5ygdlz3pm98jhlav 104215 104214 2026-06-20T19:58:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104215 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. == References == ppaom72nfcfzrdtk5h6xs19vomo40hy 104216 104215 2026-06-20T19:59:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104216 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. == References == to2cag3291imgskp4r18nwffthrk5ud 104217 104216 2026-06-20T20:00:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104217 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. == References == ku8x3t52hqa34rx7xj0v1bhxp7bzi75 104218 104217 2026-06-20T20:00:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104218 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === == References == ouvt4c06aintziqmzjypithnj281z7q 104219 104218 2026-06-20T20:01:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104219 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd. == References == 5fdib4b7o9ygghpxkq5w64zwys1rxkm 104220 104219 2026-06-20T20:02:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104220 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> == References == pw2x5fqo22e5q4aiw5zavgkvjp3bob9 104221 104220 2026-06-20T20:03:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104221 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. == References == 5i8vxm2fahktidiekatp5983l54gl2c 104222 104221 2026-06-20T20:04:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104222 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). == References == pn2oqp4xsx62yu1a39vplzxvousobec 104223 104222 2026-06-20T20:04:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104223 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. == References == 74bsufbpifov9cxfyphsoljd12dy640 104224 104223 2026-06-20T20:05:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104224 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === == References == o71l9fzhl9vqel94mxcm6u146r0mt2o 104225 104224 2026-06-20T20:06:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104225 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' == References == s9qb5y0dp67gyx1w3po6nzb0u3yysfw 104226 104225 2026-06-20T20:07:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104226 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). == References == 4gfm29qec531h8c44zisylsut73003l 104227 104226 2026-06-20T20:08:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104227 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. == References == 279wfxbt9vnfhfh799db7qpngwwkggs 104228 104227 2026-06-20T20:09:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104228 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. == References == 3s2vg92c5ncy2rfa2w412b64lx1hfot 104229 104228 2026-06-20T20:09:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104229 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' == References == semodw4d1962bdmv73l9uco3tiql2vn 104230 104229 2026-06-20T20:10:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104230 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. == References == 2paj9sg2rqfjdi2ghl0cp5f0i5h1jla 104231 104230 2026-06-20T20:11:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104231 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. == References == 9h9zabd5y37lkasumb11y3sxt547g4q 104232 104231 2026-06-20T20:11:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104232 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. == References == 6g2ho4ppipvoa4td3iz23bo869zfgww 104233 104232 2026-06-20T20:12:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104233 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff. == References == q3ej3706gaw8rug12q0bxuk3rvj4u31 104234 104233 2026-06-20T20:13:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104234 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> == References == o0cnwg5yunq6oeerfb1ym9p9ahjkygu 104235 104234 2026-06-20T20:14:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104235 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." == References == k53gfuqjpk401vvc75r4r964z5j9eg9 104236 104235 2026-06-20T20:15:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104236 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. == References == my3me2ahnidohskzi5a4piv4djlsklq 104237 104236 2026-06-20T20:16:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104237 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight. == References == e945xrwxz1vj00fv6jw7c04p64kaq2p 104238 104237 2026-06-20T20:16:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104238 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> == References == ti5nbobk2h3j1kj57879sr8x1m0fx70 104239 104238 2026-06-20T20:17:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104239 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful. == References == 5c7495rqktyee2q3jm3m1sppgx736ta 104240 104239 2026-06-20T20:18:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104240 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> == References == asvlzcmuckex8dbqzfzrrlu2sh0kpwq 104241 104240 2026-06-20T20:19:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104241 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. == References == bk0s2uidkuy9oi85klmh4sadiywy70t 104242 104241 2026-06-20T20:19:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. == References == 2dsx9y9aqyz8mz3i3psgvllfrdhlud4 104243 104242 2026-06-20T20:38:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. == References == 5hhcoq9eihaym6zho6x7cuvchbfawol 104244 104243 2026-06-20T20:39:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. == References == k9c0p4gg01jhckoq4e02sd0djjjywzd 104245 104244 2026-06-20T20:40:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104245 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. == References == qfvwjyitanq4rg5xvxlhoje7pb5f8n0 104246 104245 2026-06-20T20:42:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms. == References == heui4afmcwpz5uz5aqzis4wiph1zpn2 104247 104246 2026-06-20T20:43:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104247 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> == References == bzccr7xyy3pp399qi4z980mnxscxja5 104248 104247 2026-06-20T20:43:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === == References == skada5y704honcp1us4u9l59eipgr4v 104249 104248 2026-06-20T20:44:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104249 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. == References == b1r5zb8i43mlovgpeinugbz68vrgmon 104250 104249 2026-06-20T20:46:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104250 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. == References == ettg8964krriu5cd8zonqs1rr7lg0t6 104251 104250 2026-06-20T20:48:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104251 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. == References == h18568sc7mh0fqiiy01d9wsqy8ysyhb 104252 104251 2026-06-20T20:48:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. == References == 5rcehkmnygs10id9pg3b4969g35vb2w 104253 104252 2026-06-20T20:49:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. == References == mxa79g8wrolbc9tjalfx5ikev0foy43 104254 104253 2026-06-20T20:50:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. == References == hmqaschszxmki5tv4titlmkka0rni01 104255 104254 2026-06-20T20:51:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === == References == tccr0ob2gx0w5ldbzzngq88th9rjyty 104256 104255 2026-06-20T20:52:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104256 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd. == References == pha6zbgtyyequ8ddk588sigati343zo 104257 104256 2026-06-20T20:53:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104257 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> == References == 1n4a8pie2y8cnn3ulord9dyst4xgwen 104258 104257 2026-06-20T20:53:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104258 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. == References == dxv26zdk9nay6jcgw87d961xkrtgxzs 104259 104258 2026-06-20T20:54:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104259 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. == References == 949jh7tja6cd8n375zjirerajnmlx32 104260 104259 2026-06-20T20:55:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104260 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. == References == mczf20f6wzfi4vsp7dub6xj0k98un9b 104261 104260 2026-06-20T20:56:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104261 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. == References == 2kj27ralaj7tuxj5dcp9ef6noo1990o 104262 104261 2026-06-20T20:56:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === == References == rgf77w2r3aodvcksn67dvl7fyy92ury 104263 104262 2026-06-20T20:58:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104263 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation. == References == bsp4n4yzdr9mt24gjg9bkekrjiehmor 104264 104263 2026-06-20T20:59:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104264 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> == References == 2zn3lknjkwxt47q0r9y7u9jespcye3y 104265 104264 2026-06-20T21:00:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. == References == hytuvewx5yn45l1pktmb5lbrdhn3u00 104266 104265 2026-06-20T21:04:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. == References == 0zs3v9tuqb17pjufb3rue8e1y3jukhp 104267 104266 2026-06-20T21:06:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially. == References == tq8oftjo1sp6f31wu5raes9mn2gmpaa 104268 104267 2026-06-20T21:07:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104268 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> == References == a9mukqs5zcyrptlk5jsd7gtplys4whx 104269 104268 2026-06-20T21:07:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. == References == s9cwi2nifqqahrl27xdgqu8s2x7u4ea 104270 104269 2026-06-20T21:09:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === == References == jawyyxq91i6c4d9a79pd2hcfak6jqel 104271 104270 2026-06-20T21:10:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104271 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. == References == d4v25lh390g2vlf9u3f8f9o2tnv9jcr 104272 104271 2026-06-20T21:12:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. == References == ojwanqd29juvf3594nwhlnz3zkukv0k 104273 104272 2026-06-20T21:14:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. == References == aq9phm9lc3sg6scq7kug489euzeibjl 104274 104273 2026-06-20T21:15:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. == References == htgcqfpmyitp59018uvi8d5syi517ay 104275 104274 2026-06-20T21:16:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available. == References == efp5gnrgbayx2sbrp14tryr9tnemaq0 104276 104275 2026-06-20T21:17:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. == References == hxbqbd02vzya3dw0gyvi19p80la7evg 104277 104276 2026-06-20T21:18:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. == References == gsdh3x7n46apro2jma19ukgli7sbyvg 104278 104277 2026-06-20T21:19:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104278 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. == References == jwomwqmrbt9o9vgidjw5neyjx52vu6n 104279 104278 2026-06-20T21:24:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010. == References == bkwd203dwj1jt69a03ccht4ka66s2md 104280 104279 2026-06-20T21:27:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> == References == dr2bejvpayysa88y2dgocagvufj0ryv 104281 104280 2026-06-20T21:29:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> == References == pme86flg1hfoc9ntjfgijqjsz43nshd 104282 104281 2026-06-20T21:32:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104282 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. == References == 1tn89j18r8xt8nva336h3hewstvdkkw 104284 104282 2026-06-20T21:34:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". == References == 5dkqf13a7h07ak3miozg5omctefozyc 104285 104284 2026-06-20T21:36:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. == References == 2wvist4givf8trjlutqkcr9iopf8knr 104286 104285 2026-06-20T21:37:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. == References == asg9vtk1sdchxskz1l5hdzx9moli9ln 104287 104286 2026-06-20T21:39:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. == References == c17z4sb4twmkw7qcg36jdmeq5apwq2o 104288 104287 2026-06-20T21:43:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. == References == m4u9oordfkcsg33wani9d3z0bkz53og 104290 104288 2026-06-20T21:44:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism. == References == 8h1hn0d6o55h0oq0ay58qmmjg107md5 104291 104290 2026-06-20T21:44:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> == References == fzj1nuz5j4x04jkh6hempgf5ukwkduu 104293 104291 2026-06-20T21:48:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104293 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === == References == d2iiqev63bwgqouebjbcom0l9q61dm2 104295 104293 2026-06-20T21:51:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]], de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]], den [[:en:Israel|Israel]], to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. == References == onnqtnu9ymi6kux6o7lgjh0v5n9j553 104296 104295 2026-06-20T21:52:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]], de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]], den [[:en:Israel|Israel]], to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms. == References == gswwheiym246pgf1f9deqw5tzraf1wg 104297 104296 2026-06-20T21:53:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104297 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]], de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]], den [[:en:Israel|Israel]], to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms. E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience. == References == 4i7zsv0z608jtunbg55464zrjezmjde 104298 104297 2026-06-20T21:53:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]], de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]], den [[:en:Israel|Israel]], to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms. E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience. Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd == References == an9g4ohc9j3u82g4avo3947tx2xshz2 104300 104298 2026-06-20T21:54:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]], den [[:en:Israel|Israel]], to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms. E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience. Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd == References == nazkirtr5nmfuy7fyzb13qh49zcmona 104302 104300 2026-06-20T21:55:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]], to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms. E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience. Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd == References == pwq68v7u8jqamn1omm80iq0oi3fyllf 104303 104302 2026-06-20T21:55:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms. E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience. Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd == References == ejfjridscm4lwd1td7ezxrfj6sa3g1o 104304 104303 2026-06-20T21:56:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience. Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd == References == 7flv2f9cthvw2rm4b3ge98w8era56hk 104305 104304 2026-06-20T21:57:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd == References == kkb5x12s4akshmfivi9iog6d6h6w4yw 104306 104305 2026-06-20T21:58:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> == References == 0zkjv8hikp7wxvkekx7cxwr0anwy9ag 104307 104306 2026-06-20T21:59:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === == References == 881ng1lowrqn4kwnafdj3pgn56kypnr 104308 104307 2026-06-20T22:00:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry == References == 59j9avwilob5p4iezj9pvz1pptkrkyw 104309 104308 2026-06-20T22:01:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) == References == cqb21q2sypo1t0i9x706op5xa1nf9q6 104310 104309 2026-06-20T22:02:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) == References == rk0jyjc98pifiaw2thxwkr2r6ig90gr 104311 104310 2026-06-20T22:03:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) == References == 24zu5bmo7m1v9hbplkp7sq4f33xjngb 104312 104311 2026-06-20T22:04:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) == References == ltdvc5ya1mq4cgihsa9toxg7slcmpj2 104313 104312 2026-06-20T22:05:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: == References == nceudb8pvby10169j5nhlnua3rmzssa 104314 104313 2026-06-20T22:07:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) == References == k65t4zzq59pxp56q5uqomb2vskv0lv4 104315 104314 2026-06-20T22:08:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) == References == ey0r06gva9felbyk2q699or67326qyl 104316 104315 2026-06-20T22:09:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: == References == qc7guf9efk0b6077crphiv6me2zn2es 104317 104316 2026-06-20T22:09:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) == References == 33fri59a1cz13pda6ea1y7r45rbklwo 104318 104317 2026-06-20T22:10:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) == References == jec7ueiplxzl1xnqrc8z842pi57a8l2 104319 104318 2026-06-20T22:10:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation == References == nrpww1dm20qmn9va6pjdnft8jb7kyv3 104320 104319 2026-06-20T22:11:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == References == 3hvma77ojm3icqbl5kkaw9ho2x5wdt6 0 27720 104113 104112 2026-06-20T12:08:25Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314933027|Yellala Falls]]" 104113 wikitext text/x-wiki De Yellala Falls (Rapides de Yelala or Chutes Yelala; also spelled as Ielala) be series of waterfalls and rapids for the Congo River just upstream from Matadi for de Democratic Republic of de Congo. De falls be de lowest of long series of rapids wey make de river unnavigable, wey force colonial explorers to waka by foot go as far as de Stanley Pool 350 kilometres (220 mi) upstream. De Congo be de second largest river for de world by volume of water wey e dey discharge, den de deepest for de world. De section of river wey end with de Yellala falls get over 300 species of fish, many wey you no go see anywhere else.[3] De region drained plus de Congo River de enter one eighth of Africa, including both tropical rain forest den savanna, much for be insyd de huge, shallow basin. De present system for rivers seems to date for Dey around five million years ago, not long ago plus de geological time scale. De time de Atlantic continental margin dem lifted up and formed de barrier between de basin den de sea. A large lake formed before de Congo River broke through ein barrier, running through a narrow, rocky channel about 350 kilometres (220 mi) long from Kinshasa to Matadi. De river be navigable both above den below ein stretch, called de lower Congo.[4] De upper portion of de Lower Congo start with de steep Livingstone Falls just below Kinshasa den e continue for 133 kilometres (83 mi) through plenty small rapids. De central portion of about 129 kilometres (80 mi) be navigable, sometimes e be like lake den sometimes e narrow den as deep as 200 metres (660 ft). De lower portion of about 88 kilometres (55 mi) be de steepest, with huge rapids for de Inga Falls and again for de Yellala falls, after which de river be navigable go de ocean. About 1,250,000 cubic feet (35,000 m3) of water dey flow over de falls each second.[3] De Yellala Falls be reached by Europeans as early as 1485, when De Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão carry group of men go as far as the falls before disease force them turn back, probably malaria. For that place e set one padrão, wey be large stone cross-shaped marker, wey be customary during de Portuguese Age of Discovery. De stone, wey dem no rediscover until 1911, carry de words: "Aqui chegaram os navios do esclarecido rei <nowiki>http://D.João</nowiki> II de Portugal - Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa." ("Here arrived de ships of illustrious John II, King of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa".)[6] Captain James Hingston Tuckey visit insyd 1816. E talk say de local people think say de falls be de residence of one evil spirit, and say anybody wey see them go never see dem again. E visit for dry season, e no too like the falls. E describe de site as say e get one large hill of syenite, wey be course-grained igneous rock, for de south side. De northern side, wey dem make with de same material, no be as high, but e steeper pass de south. E describe de river as say e don force e course den for de middle of de river one island of slate "still dey defy e power, den e dey break de current into two narrow channels; that one near de south side dey give vent to one great mass of water, over which de torrent dey rush with great fury den noise, as you fit easily conceive".[8] ffcqbgl9vltil2g94k4dt6l9bdaq6f3 104114 104113 2026-06-20T12:14:26Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314933027|Yellala Falls]]" 104114 wikitext text/x-wiki De Yellala Falls (Rapides de Yelala or Chutes Yelala; also spelled as Ielala) be series of waterfalls and rapids for the Congo River just upstream from Matadi for de Democratic Republic of de Congo. De falls be de lowest of long series of rapids wey make de river unnavigable, wey force colonial explorers to waka by foot go as far as de Stanley Pool 350 kilometres (220 mi) upstream. De Congo be de second largest river for de world by volume of water wey e dey discharge, den de deepest for de world. De section of river wey end with de Yellala falls get over 300 species of fish, many wey you no go see anywhere else.[3] De region drained plus de Congo River de enter one eighth of Africa, including both tropical rain forest den savanna, much for be insyd de huge, shallow basin. De present system for rivers seems to date for Dey around five million years ago, not long ago plus de geological time scale. De time de Atlantic continental margin dem lifted up and formed de barrier between de basin den de sea. A large lake formed before de Congo River broke through ein barrier, running through a narrow, rocky channel about 350 kilometres (220 mi) long from Kinshasa to Matadi. De river be navigable both above den below ein stretch, called de lower Congo.[4] De upper portion of de Lower Congo start with de steep Livingstone Falls just below Kinshasa den e continue for 133 kilometres (83 mi) through plenty small rapids. De central portion of about 129 kilometres (80 mi) be navigable, sometimes e be like lake den sometimes e narrow den as deep as 200 metres (660 ft). De lower portion of about 88 kilometres (55 mi) be de steepest, with huge rapids for de Inga Falls and again for de Yellala falls, after which de river be navigable go de ocean. About 1,250,000 cubic feet (35,000 m3) of water dey flow over de falls each second.[3] De Yellala Falls be reached by Europeans as early as 1485, when De Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão carry group of men go as far as the falls before disease force them turn back, probably malaria. For that place e set one padrão, wey be large stone cross-shaped marker, wey be customary during de Portuguese Age of Discovery. De stone, wey dem no rediscover until 1911, carry de words: "Aqui chegaram os navios do esclarecido rei <nowiki>http://D.João</nowiki> II de Portugal - Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa." ("Here arrived de ships of illustrious John II, King of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa".)[6] Captain James Hingston Tuckey visit insyd 1816. E talk say de local people think say de falls be de residence of one evil spirit, and say anybody wey see them go never see dem again. E visit for dry season, e no too like the falls. E describe de site as say e get one large hill of syenite, wey be course-grained igneous rock, for de south side. De northern side, wey dem make with de same material, no be as high, but e steeper pass de south. E describe de river as say e don force e course den for de middle of de river one island of slate "still dey defy e power, den e dey break de current into two narrow channels; that one near de south side dey give vent to one great mass of water, over which de torrent dey rush with great fury den noise, as you fit easily conceive".[8] Tuckey, wey de Royal Geographical Society of London sponsor make e get information about de slave trade, note de brutality of de Portuguese slave trade and e gather valuable information about de geography, animals, plants, minerals den people of de region. Talking of de people wey live above de falls, Tuckey talk say fowls, eggs, manioc and fruits be property of women. De men never dey deal with de items without discussion with their wives. Beads dem dey give as presents from the men.[fn 1] 2ft90j8z5wolwsej1lg6fxj9l0vofbw 104116 104114 2026-06-20T12:19:08Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314933027|Yellala Falls]]" 104116 wikitext text/x-wiki De Yellala Falls (Rapides de Yelala or Chutes Yelala; also spelled as Ielala) be series of waterfalls and rapids for the Congo River just upstream from Matadi for de Democratic Republic of de Congo. De falls be de lowest of long series of rapids wey make de river unnavigable, wey force colonial explorers to waka by foot go as far as de Stanley Pool 350 kilometres (220 mi) upstream. De Congo be de second largest river for de world by volume of water wey e dey discharge, den de deepest for de world. De section of river wey end with de Yellala falls get over 300 species of fish, many wey you no go see anywhere else.[3] De region drained plus de Congo River de enter one eighth of Africa, including both tropical rain forest den savanna, much for be insyd de huge, shallow basin. De present system for rivers seems to date for Dey around five million years ago, not long ago plus de geological time scale. De time de Atlantic continental margin dem lifted up and formed de barrier between de basin den de sea. A large lake formed before de Congo River broke through ein barrier, running through a narrow, rocky channel about 350 kilometres (220 mi) long from Kinshasa to Matadi. De river be navigable both above den below ein stretch, called de lower Congo.[4] De upper portion of de Lower Congo start with de steep Livingstone Falls just below Kinshasa den e continue for 133 kilometres (83 mi) through plenty small rapids. De central portion of about 129 kilometres (80 mi) be navigable, sometimes e be like lake den sometimes e narrow den as deep as 200 metres (660 ft). De lower portion of about 88 kilometres (55 mi) be de steepest, with huge rapids for de Inga Falls and again for de Yellala falls, after which de river be navigable go de ocean. About 1,250,000 cubic feet (35,000 m3) of water dey flow over de falls each second.[3] De Yellala Falls be reached by Europeans as early as 1485, when De Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão carry group of men go as far as the falls before disease force them turn back, probably malaria. For that place e set one padrão, wey be large stone cross-shaped marker, wey be customary during de Portuguese Age of Discovery. De stone, wey dem no rediscover until 1911, carry de words: "Aqui chegaram os navios do esclarecido rei <nowiki>http://D.João</nowiki> II de Portugal - Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa." ("Here arrived de ships of illustrious John II, King of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa".)[6] Captain James Hingston Tuckey visit insyd 1816. E talk say de local people think say de falls be de residence of one evil spirit, and say anybody wey see them go never see dem again. E visit for dry season, e no too like the falls. E describe de site as say e get one large hill of syenite, wey be course-grained igneous rock, for de south side. De northern side, wey dem make with de same material, no be as high, but e steeper pass de south. E describe de river as say e don force e course den for de middle of de river one island of slate "still dey defy e power, den e dey break de current into two narrow channels; that one near de south side dey give vent to one great mass of water, over which de torrent dey rush with great fury den noise, as you fit easily conceive".[8] Tuckey, wey de Royal Geographical Society of London sponsor make e get information about de slave trade, note de brutality of de Portuguese slave trade and e gather valuable information about de geography, animals, plants, minerals den people of de region. Talking of de people wey live above de falls, Tuckey talk say fowls, eggs, manioc and fruits be property of women. De men never dey deal with de items without discussion with their wives. Beads dem dey give as presents from the men.[fn 1] For 1848 de Hungarian László Magyar climb de Congo go de Yellala falls, before e spend five years dey explore de region for the south. Because e no get contact plus de outside world, de valuable information wey e gather no really circulate.[9] oh3v0dqpmf54rbvkn5vy0khezn93uo7 104117 104116 2026-06-20T12:27:27Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314933027|Yellala Falls]]" 104117 wikitext text/x-wiki De Yellala Falls (Rapides de Yelala or Chutes Yelala; also spelled as Ielala) be series of waterfalls and rapids for the Congo River just upstream from Matadi for de Democratic Republic of de Congo. De falls be de lowest of long series of rapids wey make de river unnavigable, wey force colonial explorers to waka by foot go as far as de Stanley Pool 350 kilometres (220 mi) upstream. De Congo be de second largest river for de world by volume of water wey e dey discharge, den de deepest for de world. De section of river wey end with de Yellala falls get over 300 species of fish, many wey you no go see anywhere else.[3] De region drained plus de Congo River de enter one eighth of Africa, including both tropical rain forest den savanna, much for be insyd de huge, shallow basin. De present system for rivers seems to date for Dey around five million years ago, not long ago plus de geological time scale. De time de Atlantic continental margin dem lifted up and formed de barrier between de basin den de sea. A large lake formed before de Congo River broke through ein barrier, running through a narrow, rocky channel about 350 kilometres (220 mi) long from Kinshasa to Matadi. De river be navigable both above den below ein stretch, called de lower Congo.[4] De upper portion of de Lower Congo start with de steep Livingstone Falls just below Kinshasa den e continue for 133 kilometres (83 mi) through plenty small rapids. De central portion of about 129 kilometres (80 mi) be navigable, sometimes e be like lake den sometimes e narrow den as deep as 200 metres (660 ft). De lower portion of about 88 kilometres (55 mi) be de steepest, with huge rapids for de Inga Falls and again for de Yellala falls, after which de river be navigable go de ocean. About 1,250,000 cubic feet (35,000 m3) of water dey flow over de falls each second.[3] De Yellala Falls be reached by Europeans as early as 1485, when De Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão carry group of men go as far as the falls before disease force them turn back, probably malaria. For that place e set one padrão, wey be large stone cross-shaped marker, wey be customary during de Portuguese Age of Discovery. De stone, wey dem no rediscover until 1911, carry de words: "Aqui chegaram os navios do esclarecido rei <nowiki>http://D.João</nowiki> II de Portugal - Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa." ("Here arrived de ships of illustrious John II, King of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa".)[6] Captain James Hingston Tuckey visit insyd 1816. E talk say de local people think say de falls be de residence of one evil spirit, and say anybody wey see them go never see dem again. E visit for dry season, e no too like the falls. E describe de site as say e get one large hill of syenite, wey be course-grained igneous rock, for de south side. De northern side, wey dem make with de same material, no be as high, but e steeper pass de south. E describe de river as say e don force e course den for de middle of de river one island of slate "still dey defy e power, den e dey break de current into two narrow channels; that one near de south side dey give vent to one great mass of water, over which de torrent dey rush with great fury den noise, as you fit easily conceive".[8] Tuckey, wey de Royal Geographical Society of London sponsor make e get information about de slave trade, note de brutality of de Portuguese slave trade and e gather valuable information about de geography, animals, plants, minerals den people of de region. Talking of de people wey live above de falls, Tuckey talk say fowls, eggs, manioc and fruits be property of women. De men never dey deal with de items without discussion with their wives. Beads dem dey give as presents from the men.[fn 1] For 1848 de Hungarian László Magyar climb de Congo go de Yellala falls, before e spend five years dey explore de region for the south. Because e no get contact plus de outside world, de valuable information wey e gather no really circulate.[9] Sir Richard Francis Burton, who first saw the falls in 1863, wrote a description of the great Yellala. Waves developed in the course of the river "for a mile and a half above". Afterwards, the water heads down a slope of around thirty feet "in 300 yards, spuming, colliding and throwing up foam, which looks dingy white against the dull yellow-brown of the less disturbed channel - the movement is that of waves dashing upon a pier".[13] He went on: "The old river-valley, shown by the scarp of the rocks, must have presented gigantic features, and the height of the trough-walls, at least a thousand feet, gives the Yellala a certain beauty and grandeur. The site is apparently the highest axis of the dividing ridge separating the maritime lowlands from the inner plateau".[14] De explorer Henry Morton Stanley, wey visit de falls on April 6, 1880, write say over five or six mile stretch de incline be only 45 feet (14 m), but say de "general fury of dewater be caused by de obstructions wey de giant volume meet for de bed of de narrow defile." Sir Harry Johnston, wey visit the falls for 1883, call de river "de last grand fall of Yellala" den e detail de sight and sounds of e impression of de falls. bmkaesnv1lsnkqxa3bi5wzvb3389g9u 104120 104117 2026-06-20T12:31:22Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314933027|Yellala Falls]]" 104120 wikitext text/x-wiki De Yellala Falls (Rapides de Yelala or Chutes Yelala; also spelled as Ielala) be series of waterfalls and rapids for the Congo River just upstream from Matadi for de Democratic Republic of de Congo. De falls be de lowest of long series of rapids wey make de river unnavigable, wey force colonial explorers to waka by foot go as far as de Stanley Pool 350 kilometres (220 mi) upstream. De Congo be de second largest river for de world by volume of water wey e dey discharge, den de deepest for de world. De section of river wey end with de Yellala falls get over 300 species of fish, many wey you no go see anywhere else.[3] De region drained plus de Congo River de enter one eighth of Africa, including both tropical rain forest den savanna, much for be insyd de huge, shallow basin. De present system for rivers seems to date for Dey around five million years ago, not long ago plus de geological time scale. De time de Atlantic continental margin dem lifted up and formed de barrier between de basin den de sea. A large lake formed before de Congo River broke through ein barrier, running through a narrow, rocky channel about 350 kilometres (220 mi) long from Kinshasa to Matadi. De river be navigable both above den below ein stretch, called de lower Congo.[4] De upper portion of de Lower Congo start with de steep Livingstone Falls just below Kinshasa den e continue for 133 kilometres (83 mi) through plenty small rapids. De central portion of about 129 kilometres (80 mi) be navigable, sometimes e be like lake den sometimes e narrow den as deep as 200 metres (660 ft). De lower portion of about 88 kilometres (55 mi) be de steepest, with huge rapids for de Inga Falls and again for de Yellala falls, after which de river be navigable go de ocean. About 1,250,000 cubic feet (35,000 m3) of water dey flow over de falls each second.[3] De Yellala Falls be reached by Europeans as early as 1485, when De Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão carry group of men go as far as the falls before disease force them turn back, probably malaria. For that place e set one padrão, wey be large stone cross-shaped marker, wey be customary during de Portuguese Age of Discovery. De stone, wey dem no rediscover until 1911, carry de words: "Aqui chegaram os navios do esclarecido rei <nowiki>http://D.João</nowiki> II de Portugal - Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa." ("Here arrived de ships of illustrious John II, King of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa".)[6] Captain James Hingston Tuckey visit insyd 1816. E talk say de local people think say de falls be de residence of one evil spirit, and say anybody wey see them go never see dem again. E visit for dry season, e no too like the falls. E describe de site as say e get one large hill of syenite, wey be course-grained igneous rock, for de south side. De northern side, wey dem make with de same material, no be as high, but e steeper pass de south. E describe de river as say e don force e course den for de middle of de river one island of slate "still dey defy e power, den e dey break de current into two narrow channels; that one near de south side dey give vent to one great mass of water, over which de torrent dey rush with great fury den noise, as you fit easily conceive".[8] Tuckey, wey de Royal Geographical Society of London sponsor make e get information about de slave trade, note de brutality of de Portuguese slave trade and e gather valuable information about de geography, animals, plants, minerals den people of de region. Talking of de people wey live above de falls, Tuckey talk say fowls, eggs, manioc and fruits be property of women. De men never dey deal with de items without discussion with their wives. Beads dem dey give as presents from the men.[fn 1] For 1848 de Hungarian László Magyar climb de Congo go de Yellala falls, before e spend five years dey explore de region for the south. Because e no get contact plus de outside world, de valuable information wey e gather no really circulate.[9] Sir Richard Francis Burton, who first saw de falls in 1863, wrote a description of de great Yellala. Waves developed in de course of de river "for a mile and a half above". Afterwards, the water heads down a slope of around thirty feet "in 300 yards, spuming, colliding den throwing up foam, which looks dingy white against the dull yellow-brown of de less disturbed channel - de movement is that of waves dashing upon a pier".[13] He went on: "De old river-valley, shown by de scarp of de rocks, must have presented gigantic features, and de height of de trough-walls, at least a thousand feet, gives the Yellala a certain beauty den grandeur. De site is apparently de highest axis of de dividing ridge separating de maritime lowlands from de inner plateau".[14] De explorer Henry Morton Stanley, wey visit de falls on April 6, 1880, write say over five or six mile stretch de incline be only 45 feet (14 m), but say de "general fury of dewater be caused by de obstructions wey de giant volume meet for de bed of de narrow defile." Sir Harry Johnston, wey visit the falls for 1883, call de river "de last grand fall of Yellala" den e detail de sight and sounds of e impression of de falls. qrubcoyga9sv39y89rylf4ezmlzd7mi 104122 104120 2026-06-20T12:35:22Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314933027|Yellala Falls]]" 104122 wikitext text/x-wiki De Yellala Falls (Rapides de Yelala or Chutes Yelala; also spelled as Ielala) be series of waterfalls and rapids for the Congo River just upstream from Matadi for de Democratic Republic of de Congo. De falls be de lowest of long series of rapids wey make de river unnavigable, wey force colonial explorers to waka by foot go as far as de Stanley Pool 350 kilometres (220 mi) upstream. De Congo be de second largest river for de world by volume of water wey e dey discharge, den de deepest for de world. De section of river wey end with de Yellala falls get over 300 species of fish, many wey you no go see anywhere else.[3] De region drained plus de Congo River de enter one eighth of Africa, including both tropical rain forest den savanna, much for be insyd de huge, shallow basin. De present system for rivers seems to date for Dey around five million years ago, not long ago plus de geological time scale. De time de Atlantic continental margin dem lifted up and formed de barrier between de basin den de sea. A large lake formed before de Congo River broke through ein barrier, running through a narrow, rocky channel about 350 kilometres (220 mi) long from Kinshasa to Matadi. De river be navigable both above den below ein stretch, called de lower Congo.[4] De upper portion of de Lower Congo start with de steep Livingstone Falls just below Kinshasa den e continue for 133 kilometres (83 mi) through plenty small rapids. De central portion of about 129 kilometres (80 mi) be navigable, sometimes e be like lake den sometimes e narrow den as deep as 200 metres (660 ft). De lower portion of about 88 kilometres (55 mi) be de steepest, with huge rapids for de Inga Falls and again for de Yellala falls, after which de river be navigable go de ocean. About 1,250,000 cubic feet (35,000 m3) of water dey flow over de falls each second.[3] De Yellala Falls be reached by Europeans as early as 1485, when De Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão carry group of men go as far as the falls before disease force them turn back, probably malaria. For that place e set one padrão, wey be large stone cross-shaped marker, wey be customary during de Portuguese Age of Discovery. De stone, wey dem no rediscover until 1911, carry de words: "Aqui chegaram os navios do esclarecido rei <nowiki>http://D.João</nowiki> II de Portugal - Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa." ("Here arrived de ships of illustrious John II, King of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pero Anes, Pero da Costa".)[6] Captain James Hingston Tuckey visit insyd 1816. E talk say de local people think say de falls be de residence of one evil spirit, and say anybody wey see them go never see dem again. E visit for dry season, e no too like the falls. E describe de site as say e get one large hill of syenite, wey be course-grained igneous rock, for de south side. De northern side, wey dem make with de same material, no be as high, but e steeper pass de south. E describe de river as say e don force e course den for de middle of de river one island of slate "still dey defy e power, den e dey break de current into two narrow channels; that one near de south side dey give vent to one great mass of water, over which de torrent dey rush with great fury den noise, as you fit easily conceive".[8] Tuckey, wey de Royal Geographical Society of London sponsor make e get information about de slave trade, note de brutality of de Portuguese slave trade and e gather valuable information about de geography, animals, plants, minerals den people of de region. Talking of de people wey live above de falls, Tuckey talk say fowls, eggs, manioc and fruits be property of women. De men never dey deal with de items without discussion with their wives. Beads dem dey give as presents from the men.[fn 1] For 1848 de Hungarian László Magyar climb de Congo go de Yellala falls, before e spend five years dey explore de region for the south. Because e no get contact plus de outside world, de valuable information wey e gather no really circulate.[9] Sir Richard Francis Burton, who first saw de falls in 1863, wrote a description of de great Yellala. Waves developed in de course of de river "for a mile and a half above". Afterwards, the water heads down a slope of around thirty feet "in 300 yards, spuming, colliding den throwing up foam, which looks dingy white against the dull yellow-brown of de less disturbed channel - de movement is that of waves dashing upon a pier".[13] He went on: "De old river-valley, shown by de scarp of de rocks, must have presented gigantic features, and de height of de trough-walls, at least a thousand feet, gives the Yellala a certain beauty den grandeur. De site is apparently de highest axis of de dividing ridge separating de maritime lowlands from de inner plateau".[14] De explorer Henry Morton Stanley, wey visit de falls on April 6, 1880, write say over five or six mile stretch de incline be only 45 feet (14 m), but say de "general fury of dewater be caused by de obstructions wey de giant volume meet for de bed of de narrow defile." Sir Harry Johnston, wey visit the falls for 1883, call de river "de last grand fall of Yellala" den e detail de sight and sounds of e impression of de falls. De Yellala Falls den de other falls den rapids upstream have largely isolated de aquatic fauna of de Congo Basin for around five million years, a significant period on an evolutionary timescale.[3] The cichlid genera ''Steatocranus'', ''Nanochromis'', ''Lamprologus'' den''Teleogramma'' are found only insyd de Congo basin. Several dozen species insyd these genera are found only in de lower Congo. ''Steatocranus'' are rheophilic, meaning they have adapted to living in fast water. De four species of ''Teleogramma'' are found only insyd de lower Congo rapids. [4] Genetically distinct populations have been found on opposite sides of the river. Although only 1 mile (1.6 km) apart, powerful currents that may exceed 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) have prevented interbreeding.[3] [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] klu4ftmeed8ka6fcpyuggffwmgo90l4 0 27721 104123 104108 2026-06-20T12:41:27Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1348633987|Kazungula Ferry]]" 104123 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:KazungulaFerry.jpg|thumb|200x200px|One of de two pontoon ferries where dey cross de Zambezi for Kazungula]] De '''Kazungula Ferry''' be pontoon ferry across 400-metre-wide (1,300 ft) [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] between [[Botswana]] den [[Zambia]]. Ibe one of de largest ferries inside south-central Africa, wey get capacity of 70 tonnes (69 long tons; 77 short tons).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazungula Ferry, Botswana |url=https://www.northstar-alliance.org/portfolio/kazungula-ferry-botswana/ |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=North Star Alliance |language=en-GB}}</ref> De service provided by two motorised pontoons den operated between border posts for Kazungula, Zambia den Kazungula, Botswana. E dey link de Livingstone-Sesheke road (M10 road; wey connect to de Trans–Caprivi Highway for Katima Mulilo den form part for de Walvis Bay Corridor) to de main north–south highway for Botswana throu Francistown den [[Gaborone]] to [[South Africa]], den also to de Kasane-[[Victoria Falls]] road throu [[Zimbabwe]]. E serve de international road traffic for three countries whe dey directly (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana) den for three more indirectly (Namibia, South Africa and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]]). Whether ebe Botswana den Zambia whe shared a common border, or whether ebe de ferry whe be illegally crossing inside [[Namibia|Namibian]] or Rhodesian territory, na de subject for dispute. Inside 1970, [[South Africa]] (whe at de time occupied Namibia) informed Botswana dat dey no get common border between Botswana den Zambia, claiming dat a quadripoint existed. As a result, South Africa claimed, de Kazungula Ferry, whe link Botswana den Zambia at de quadripoint, be illegal. Botswana nau reject both claims. Actually, ebe confrontation den shots were fired at de ferry;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffiths |first=Ieuan Ll |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7rFC8o9dmAC&pg=PA56 |title=The African Inheritance |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-01092-4 |page=56}}</ref> some years later, de Rhodesian Army attacked den sank de ferry, maintaining that e dey serve military purposes. [[File:Zambezi_Bridge_construction_at_Kazungula.jpg|thumb|The bridge under construction, March 2019]] [[File:Kazungula_Bridge_Map.png|thumb|Map of the Kazungula Bridge in relation to the Kazungula, Botswana (southwest) and Kazungula, Zambia (northeast)]] tm00ybsbv9yynhcuong48lr0b61isa3 104126 104123 2026-06-20T12:47:07Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1348633987|Kazungula Ferry]]" 104126 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:KazungulaFerry.jpg|thumb|200x200px|One of de two pontoon ferries where dey cross de Zambezi for Kazungula]] De '''Kazungula Ferry''' be pontoon ferry across 400-metre-wide (1,300 ft) [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] between [[Botswana]] den [[Zambia]]. Ibe one of de largest ferries inside south-central Africa, wey get capacity of 70 tonnes (69 long tons; 77 short tons).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazungula Ferry, Botswana |url=https://www.northstar-alliance.org/portfolio/kazungula-ferry-botswana/ |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=North Star Alliance |language=en-GB}}</ref> De service provided by two motorised pontoons den operated between border posts for Kazungula, Zambia den Kazungula, Botswana. E dey link de Livingstone-Sesheke road (M10 road; wey connect to de Trans–Caprivi Highway for Katima Mulilo den form part for de Walvis Bay Corridor) to de main north–south highway for Botswana throu Francistown den [[Gaborone]] to [[South Africa]], den also to de Kasane-[[Victoria Falls]] road throu [[Zimbabwe]]. E serve de international road traffic for three countries whe dey directly (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana) den for three more indirectly (Namibia, South Africa and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]]). Whether ebe Botswana den Zambia whe shared a common border, or whether ebe de ferry whe be illegally crossing inside [[Namibia|Namibian]] or Rhodesian territory, na de subject for dispute. Inside 1970, [[South Africa]] (whe at de time occupied Namibia) informed Botswana dat dey no get common border between Botswana den Zambia, claiming dat a quadripoint existed. As a result, South Africa claimed, de Kazungula Ferry, whe link Botswana den Zambia at de quadripoint, be illegal. Botswana nau reject both claims. Actually, ebe confrontation den shots were fired at de ferry;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffiths |first=Ieuan Ll |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7rFC8o9dmAC&pg=PA56 |title=The African Inheritance |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-01092-4 |page=56}}</ref> some years later, de Rhodesian Army attacked den sank de ferry, maintaining that e dey serve military purposes. Inside 2003 de ferry be de site for disaster whe many overloaded Zambian truck capsized one of de pontoons den 18 people drowned. De accident dey blamed on de lack of weighbridges inside Zambia at de time to check de weight for trucks. [[File:Zambezi_Bridge_construction_at_Kazungula.jpg|thumb|The bridge under construction, March 2019]] [[File:Kazungula_Bridge_Map.png|thumb|Map of the Kazungula Bridge in relation to the Kazungula, Botswana (southwest) and Kazungula, Zambia (northeast)]] mjo9g8jglxgjigjaksdrz5oyp4jx5j4 104127 104126 2026-06-20T12:51:31Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1348633987|Kazungula Ferry]]" 104127 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:KazungulaFerry.jpg|thumb|200x200px|One of de two pontoon ferries where dey cross de Zambezi for Kazungula]] De '''Kazungula Ferry''' be pontoon ferry across 400-metre-wide (1,300 ft) [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] between [[Botswana]] den [[Zambia]]. Ibe one of de largest ferries inside south-central Africa, wey get capacity of 70 tonnes (69 long tons; 77 short tons).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazungula Ferry, Botswana |url=https://www.northstar-alliance.org/portfolio/kazungula-ferry-botswana/ |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=North Star Alliance |language=en-GB}}</ref> De service provided by two motorised pontoons den operated between border posts for Kazungula, Zambia den Kazungula, Botswana. E dey link de Livingstone-Sesheke road (M10 road; wey connect to de Trans–Caprivi Highway for Katima Mulilo den form part for de Walvis Bay Corridor) to de main north–south highway for Botswana throu Francistown den [[Gaborone]] to [[South Africa]], den also to de Kasane-[[Victoria Falls]] road throu [[Zimbabwe]]. E serve de international road traffic for three countries whe dey directly (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana) den for three more indirectly (Namibia, South Africa and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]]). Whether ebe Botswana den Zambia whe shared a common border, or whether ebe de ferry whe be illegally crossing inside [[Namibia|Namibian]] or Rhodesian territory, na de subject for dispute. Inside 1970, [[South Africa]] (whe at de time occupied Namibia) informed Botswana dat dey no get common border between Botswana den Zambia, claiming dat a quadripoint existed. As a result, South Africa claimed, de Kazungula Ferry, whe link Botswana den Zambia at de quadripoint, be illegal. Botswana nau reject both claims. Actually, ebe confrontation den shots were fired at de ferry;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffiths |first=Ieuan Ll |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7rFC8o9dmAC&pg=PA56 |title=The African Inheritance |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-01092-4 |page=56}}</ref> some years later, de Rhodesian Army attacked den sank de ferry, maintaining that e dey serve military purposes. Inside 2003 de ferry be de site for disaster whe many overloaded Zambian truck capsized one of de pontoons den 18 people drowned. De accident dey blamed on de lack of weighbridges inside Zambia at de time to check de weight for trucks. [[File:Zambezi_Bridge_construction_at_Kazungula.jpg|thumb|The bridge under construction, March 2019]] [[File:Kazungula_Bridge_Map.png|thumb|Map of the Kazungula Bridge in relation to the Kazungula, Botswana (southwest) and Kazungula, Zambia (northeast)]] * Kazungula * Kazungula Bridge dodixd47wbgxqv50w7gv4m8o4if74t6 0 27724 104115 2026-06-20T12:15:14Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1255219247|Baoulé River]]" 104115 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Baoulé River''' ({{langx|fr|Fleuve Baoulé}}, wey dey [[Manding languages|Manding]] for "Red River") ebi [[Rivers of Mali|river]] ein [[Mali]] ein [[West Africa]]. Edey flow from a source west of [[Bamako]] to de [[Bakoy River|Bakoy]] downastream of [[Toukoto]] den forms part of the [[Senegal River|Senegal]] watershed.<ref name="omvs">{{citation |title=Caractéristiques physiques du fleuve Sénégal |url=http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716144235/http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php |archive-date=16 July 2013 |url-status=dead |publisher=Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal |language=French |accessdate=2 June 2012}}.</ref><ref name="Maïga">{{citation |last=Maïga |first=Mahamadou |title=Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal: de la Traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré |page=14 footnotes 4, 5 |year=1995 |publisher=L'Harmattan |language=French}}.</ref> Ein [[Manding languages|Manding]] languages, Baoulé signifies 'red river', [[Bakoye River|Bakoye]] 'white river' den [[Bafing River|Bafing]] 'black river'.<ref name="omvs">{{citation |title=Caractéristiques physiques du fleuve Sénégal |url=http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716144235/http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php |archive-date=16 July 2013 |url-status=dead |publisher=Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal |language=French |accessdate=2 June 2012}}.</ref><ref name="Maïga">{{citation |last=Maïga |first=Mahamadou |title=Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal: de la Traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré |page=14 footnotes 4, 5 |year=1995 |publisher=L'Harmattan |language=French}}.</ref> k1njglysd1da9q32dr3py8c6la9nlyq 0 27725 104118 2026-06-20T12:28:28Z Osbornwrites 6523 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1310347565|Inga Falls]]" 104118 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>  '''Inga Falls''' be rapid 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Matadi for [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] where de [[Congo River]] dey drop 96 metres (315 ft) for de course of 15 kilometres (9.3 mi).De falls dey part of a larger group of rapids for the lower Congo River insyd. [[Livingstone Falls]] be located upstream closer to de Pool Malebo. Dem falls formed in a sharp bend of Congo River where de river ein width dey fluctuates from more than 4 kilometres (13,000 ft) to only 260 metres (850 ft). Eget median discharge of 42,000 cubic metres per second (1,500,000 cu ft/s),de falls go fit be considered as de largest for de world inside, but enor be widely considered as true waterfall. Ein maximum recorded volume be 71,000 cubic metres per second (2,500,000 cu ft/s). Inga falls also be de site of two large hydroelectric dams, named Inga I and Inga II, as well as two projected dams, Inga III den de Grand Inga Dam, the latter of which go be the largest (by power production) for dey world inside.{{Reflist}}<templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles> * [http://geni.org/globalenergy/library/technical-articles/transmission/africa-europe-electrical-interconnection-and-the-prospects-of-worldwide-interconnections/page10.shtml GENI Inga III page] atrylxy0jys4uovcl0cj5kyf507wpvb 104119 104118 2026-06-20T12:29:45Z Osbornwrites 6523 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1310347565|Inga Falls]]" 104119 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>'''Inga Falls''' be rapid 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Matadi for [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] where de [[Congo River]] dey drop 96 metres (315 ft) for de course of 15 kilometres (9.3 mi).De falls dey part of a larger group of rapids for the lower Congo River insyd. [[Livingstone Falls]] be located upstream closer to de Pool Malebo. Dem falls formed in a sharp bend of Congo River where de river ein width dey fluctuates from more than 4 kilometres (13,000 ft) to only 260 metres (850 ft). Eget median discharge of 42,000 cubic metres per second (1,500,000 cu ft/s),de falls go fit be considered as de largest for de world inside, but enor be widely considered as true waterfall. Ein maximum recorded volume be 71,000 cubic metres per second (2,500,000 cu ft/s). Inga falls also be de site of two large hydroelectric dams, named Inga I and Inga II, as well as two projected dams, Inga III den de Grand Inga Dam, the latter of which go be the largest (by power production) for dey world inside.{{Reflist}}<templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles> * [http://geni.org/globalenergy/library/technical-articles/transmission/africa-europe-electrical-interconnection-and-the-prospects-of-worldwide-interconnections/page10.shtml GENI Inga III page] s7whl5lcoiewzo22by6265p2p2ug7k2 104129 104119 2026-06-20T12:57:15Z Osbornwrites 6523 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1310347565|Inga Falls]]" 104129 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>'''Inga Falls''' be rapid 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Matadi for [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] where de [[Congo River]] dey drop 96 metres (315 ft) for de course of 15 kilometres (9.3 mi).De falls dey part of a larger group of rapids for the lower Congo River insyd. [[Livingstone Falls]] be located upstream closer to de Pool Malebo. Dem falls formed in a sharp bend of Congo River where de river ein width dey fluctuates from more than 4 kilometres (13,000 ft) to only 260 metres (850 ft). Eget median discharge of 42,000 cubic metres per second (1,500,000 cu ft/s),de falls go fit be considered as de largest for de world inside, but enor be widely considered as true waterfall. Ein maximum recorded volume be 71,000 cubic metres per second (2,500,000 cu ft/s). Inga falls also be de site of two large hydroelectric dams, named Inga I and Inga II, as well as two projected dams, Inga III den de Grand Inga Dam, the latter of which go be the largest (by power production) for dey world inside. * List of waterfalls * List of waterfalls by ein flow rate == References == {{Reflist}}<templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Authority control}} * [http://geni.org/globalenergy/library/technical-articles/transmission/africa-europe-electrical-interconnection-and-the-prospects-of-worldwide-interconnections/page10.shtml GENI Inga III page] {{Authority control}} 0zax5hpfygl5i32u5yxjhib8yxzur7w 0 27726 104121 2026-06-20T12:34:13Z Dzidedavid 6300 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1316736395|Western Guinean lowland forests]]" 104121 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Western Guinean lowland forests''' [[ecoregion]] (WWF #AT0130) ebe [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist broadleaf forest]] ecoregion wey dey [[West Africa]]. Ebe centered on Liberia, with portions wey dey surround countries. Ebe de westernmost tropical rainforest wey dey Africa, den has high level insyd species endemism, for over 200 species ein endemic plants.<ref name="wwf">{{cite web |title=Western Guinean lowland forests |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0130 |access-date=June 20, 2020 |publisher=World Wildlife Federation |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ecomap">{{cite web |title=Map of Ecoregions 2017 |url=https://ecoregions2017.appspot.com/ |access-date=August 20, 2021 |publisher=Resolve |language=en}}</ref><ref name="dopa">{{cite web |title=Western Guinean lowland forests |url=https://dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ecoregion/30130 |access-date=August 20, 2021 |publisher=Digital Observatory for Protected Areas |language=en}}</ref><ref name="eoe">{{cite web |title=Western Guinean lowland forests |url=https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Western_Guinean_lowland_forests |access-date=August 20, 2021 |publisher=The Encyclopedia of Earth |language=en}}</ref> td9f72i4ukppi8wh5nv9ckb7mx3npv3 0 27727 104124 2026-06-20T12:45:12Z Adabre Samuel 6299 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293384992|Kabwelume Falls]]" 104124 wikitext text/x-wiki Kabwelume Falls be waterfall wey dey on top Kalungwishi River for Northern Province of Zambia. D falls dey about 6 km downstream from Lumangwe Falls. When person view d falls for peak water volume time (April/May), about one month after d rainy season finish, d falls dey form one very beautiful semi-circle of falling water. Dem get plans to build one hydroelectric power station for this falls. kifqhaa6pspugwaj5wnboy9p5juqxpk 0 27728 104125 2026-06-20T12:45:57Z Dzidedavid 6300 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293384369|Chisimba Falls]]" 104125 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Chisimba Falls''', sanso '''Chishimba Falls''' wey be series of [[Waterfall|waterfalls]] wey dey locate for [[Kasama District]], for de [[Northern Province, Zambia|Northern Province]] for [[Zambia]]. De waterfalls dey host de [[Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]].<ref name="1R">{{cite web |author=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |work=Construction Review Online |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> De scenic views around de falls, together with a museum under development, wey be major tourist attractions.<ref name="2R">{{cite web |author=World of Waterfalls |date=16 August 2010 |title=Chishimba Falls, Northern Province, Zambia |url=https://www.world-of-waterfalls.com/waterfalls/africa-chishimba-falls/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |work=World of Waterfalls}}</ref> 6trfufpx7e6m7k2t3lzjbvn952u45pu 0 27729 104128 2026-06-20T12:51:59Z Osbornwrites 6523 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359838196|Kundalila Falls]]" 104128 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Kundalila_Falls.jpg|thumb|Kundalila Falls for dry season insyd]] <templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles>  '''Kundalila Falls''' be waterfall wey dey de Kaombe River for [[Zambia]] ein top. Edey fall over the lip of the Muchinga escarpment wey edey form waterfall near the small town of Kanona for Serenje District. De name 'Kundalila Falls' dey mean "crying dove" for de Bemba language local language insyd. From de top of de falls eget views over the Luangwa Valley which be part of de Albertine Rift, the western branch of de East African Rift. In multiple stages, de Kaombe River dey drop from approximately 80m from the escarpment. At de foot of de fall be natural deep pool wey be surrounded by wild flowers. Kundalila Falls be one of de official Zambian Natural Monuments. idk6d519y2u045zead4qaj7bc1rcfbf 104130 104128 2026-06-20T12:59:57Z Osbornwrites 6523 Edited the translation 104130 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Kundalila_Falls.jpg|thumb|Kundalila Falls for dry season insyd]] <templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles>  '''Kundalila Falls''' be waterfall wey dey de Kaombe River for [[Zambia]] ein top. Edey fall over the lip of the Muchinga escarpment wey edey form waterfall near the small town of Kanona for Serenje District. De name 'Kundalila Falls' dey mean "crying dove" for de Bemba language local language insyd. From de top of de falls eget views over the Luangwa Valley which be part of de Albertine Rift, de western branch of de East African Rift. In multiple stages, de Kaombe River dey drop from approximately 80m from de escarpment. At de foot of de fall be natural deep pool wey be surrounded by wild flowers. Kundalila Falls be one of de official Zambian Natural Monuments. ng6mfse2j2p8kan5om5v3m50kmrokt8 0 27730 104131 2026-06-20T13:02:37Z Episode.10 6296 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360283986|Mambilima Falls]]" 104131 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mambilima Falls ''' be series of rapids on de [[Luapula River]] way be de boundary way dey in between [[Zambia]] den [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].[1] Na dem dey bell de falls de Johnstone Falls. Edey extend along 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) stretch of de river. 9f9mqf6m512z0uwuh5ddf7ab7tb9u19 104141 104131 2026-06-20T13:20:50Z Episode.10 6296 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360283986|Mambilima Falls]]" 104141 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mambilima Falls ''' be series of rapids on de [[Luapula River]] way be de boundary way dey in between [[Zambia]] den [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].[1] Na dem dey bell de falls de Johnstone Falls. Edey extend along 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) stretch of de river. Under Lake Bangweulu the Luapula be broad, swamplike system way dey flow for southward way dey turn to west den sanna go down de steep Mambatuta Falls den sanna pass north to de Mambilima falls,De lush den densely populated Luapula valley dey gbele out beyond de Mambilima falls for bola area omarshes, floodplains den lagoons for ein southern end of de [[Lake Mweru]]Be like almost continuous stretch of villages from de falls to de lake.Old times, de fishermen way be close to de falls dey use dams, weirs den traps dey carry catch as bounch fish as possible before de flood water go be treated. De fish of Lake Mweru no dey spawn south of de waterfalls then rapids, way dey Lake Bangweulu get some small different ecology. dbqkvocjq0q8xc1hh9tvrc6up6d7jen 0 27731 104132 2026-06-20T13:03:22Z Dzidedavid 6300 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360283478|Mambatuta Falls]]" 104132 wikitext text/x-wiki De Luapula wey dey flow south from Lake Bangweulu as a broad, swampy river a few hundred meters (yards) wide. Ein den turn west and run one syd de border for de [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. After de Mambatuta falls de river narrows den meanders north, den dey descend one syd de[[Mambilima falls]], following which ein broaden insyd a wetland region {{convert|150|km|mi}} dat feeds de south end of Lake Mweru.<ref>{{cite web |title=MWERU-LUAPULA: PHYSIOGRAPHY, PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5056e/y5056e05.htm |access-date=2011-10-31 |publisher=FAO}}</ref> Mambatuta ebe steep waterfall dat descend ein a single vertical drop.<ref>{{cite web |last=Daniel |first=Roger |year=2011 |title=Crossing Africa by Motorboat |url=http://www.greatnorthroad.org/boma/Crossing_Africa_by_Motorboat |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009081615/http://www.greatnorthroad.org/boma/Crossing_Africa_by_Motorboat |archive-date=2008-10-09 |access-date=2011-10-31}}</ref> At one tym de Bangweulu / Mweru basin wey be part of de Zambezi system, den several species for fish dat be common for de Zambezi system wey dey found for de Luapula.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Bryan Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zDjMyk4oDBkC&pg=PA201 |title=The Ecology of river systems |last2=Walker |first2=Keith F. |publisher=Springer |year=1986 |isbn=90-6193-540-7 |page=221}}</ref> Congo fauna have penetrated up de Luvua insyd Lake Mweru, but have been blocked by de Mambatuta Falls from entry insyd Lake Bangweulu. De transition occurred for de early [[Tertiary period|Tertiary]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Thieme |first=Michele L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3nkL9NqqlscC&pg=PA186 |title=Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: a conservation assessment |publisher=Island Press |year=2005 |isbn=1-55963-365-4 |page=186}}</ref> refioj9cnf6utkflu09ot5h6973vxni 0 27732 104133 2026-06-20T13:04:56Z Adabre Samuel 6299 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293385856|Mutumuna Falls]]" 104133 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mutumuna Falls''' be wide [[waterfall]] wey dey [[Zambia]]. E be d “Upper Fall” for d three-waterfall cascade wey people commonly dey call Chisimba Falls (or Chishimba Falls) for Kasama District, Northern Province of Zambia. Mutumuna Falls and d other two waterfalls for d cascade dey host d15-megawatt Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station plus other related infrastructure across d Luombe River. 1c8getedvsgs4hjuf7wghg6t8ohj43j 0 27733 104134 2026-06-20T13:06:49Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359437729|Cross River State]]" 104134 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cross River State''' ebe [[States of Nigeria|state]] wey dey [[South South (Nigeria)|South-South geopolitical zone]] of [[Nigeria]]. Named for de [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross River]], de state wey formed from de eastern part of de [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]] on 27 May 1967. De state eget its capital as [[Calabar]] den ebe bordered to de north by [[Benue State]], to de west by [[Ebonyi State]] den [[Abia State]], den to de southwest by [[Akwa Ibom State]] while its eastern border forms part of de national [[Cameroon-Nigeria border|border with]] [[Cameroon]]. Originally wey known as '''South-Eastern State''' before being renamed ein 1976, Cross River state formerly included de area that ebr now [[Akwa Ibom State]], which became a distinct state in 1987.<ref name="pulse.ng">{{Cite news|title=This is how the 36 states were created|url=https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/nigerian-states-this-is-how-the-36-states-were-created/mdtnq3e|newspaper=[[Pulse Nigeria]]|date=24 October 2017|access-date=15 December 2021}}</ref> Of de [[States of Nigeria|36 states]], Cross River wey de [[List of Nigerian states by area|nineteenth largest in area]] and [[List of Nigerian states by population|27th most populous]] with an estimated population of over 3.8 million as of 2016.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Population 2006-2016 |url=https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/474 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics, Nigeria|National Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref> Geographically, de state wey mainly divided between de [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic]] ein de far north and the [[Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests]] ein de majority of de interior of de state. De smaller [[List of ecoregions in Nigeria|ecoregions]] are de [[Central African mangroves]] ein de coastal far south den a part of de [[Montane ecosystems|montane]] [[Cameroonian Highlands forests]] ein de extreme northeast. De most major geographical feature wey de state's namesake, de [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross River]] which bisects Cross River State's interior before forming much of de state's western border den flows into de Cross River Estuary. Other important rivers be de [[Calabar River|Calabar]] den [[Great Kwa River|Great Kwa]] rivers wey flow from de inland [[Oban Hills]] before flanking de city of [[Calabar]] den flows into de Cross River Estuary as well. Ein de forested interior of de state are several biodiverse [[Protected areas of Nigeria|protected areas]] including de [[Cross River National Park]], [[Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary]], den [[Mbe Mountains Community Forest]]. These wildlife reserves contain populations of [[Preuss's red colobus]], [[African forest buffalo]], [[bat hawk]], [[tree pangolin]], [[grey-necked rockfowl]], den [[West African slender-snouted crocodile]] along with some of Nigeria's last remaining [[Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee]], [[Drill (animal)|drill]], [[African forest elephant]], den [[Cross River gorilla]] populations.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Cross River National Park (Oban Division) |url=https://nigeria.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Cross-River-NP-Oban.aspx |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=[[Wildlife Conservation Society|WCS]] Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cross River National Park (Okwangwo Division) |url=https://nigeria.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Cross-River-NP-Okwangwo.aspx |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=[[Wildlife Conservation Society|WCS]] Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://nigeria.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Afi-Mountain-Wildlife-Sanctuary.aspx |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=[[Wildlife Conservation Society|WCS]] Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mbe Mountains |url=https://nigeria.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Mbe-Mountains.aspx |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=[[Wildlife Conservation Society|WCS]] Nigeria}}</ref> Demographically, Cross River State wey inhabited by several ethnic groups, primarily de [[Efik people|Efik]] of de riverside south den [[Calabar]]; de [[Ekoi people|Ekoi (Ejagham)]] of de inland south; de [[Akunakuna]], [[Boki people|Boki]], [[Bahumono]], den [[Yakö people|Yakö (Yakurr)]] of de [[Cross River Central Senatorial District|central region]]; den de [[Bekwarra]], [[Bette people|Bette]], [[Igede]], de Mbube people den [[Ukelle people (Nigeria)|Ukelle (Kukele)]] of de northern region. Ein de pre-colonial period, wetin be now Cross River State was divided between its ethnic groups wey be some joining de [[Aro Confederacy]] while de Efik founded de [[Duke Town|Akwa Akpa (Old Calabar)]] city-state. De latter become a British protectorate ein 1884 as de capital of de [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]] but it was not until the early 1900s det de British actually gained formal control of de entire area. Around de same time, de protectorate (now renamed de [[Niger Coast Protectorate]]) wey incorporated into de [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] wey later merged into [[British Nigeria]].<ref name="Britannica1911">{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Calabar|volume=4|page=962}}</ref> After de merger, much of modern-day Cross River became a centre of anti-colonial resistance during de [[Women's War]] den trade through de international seaport at [[Calabar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Calabar |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Calabar |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> After independence ein 1960, de area of now-Cross River wey dey part of de post-independence [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]] until 1967 when de region was split den de area became part of de [[South-Eastern State, Nigeria|South-Eastern State]]. Less than two months afterwards, the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]-majority former Eastern Region attempted to secede as de state of [[Biafra]]; ein de three-year long [[Nigerian Civil War]], Calabar and its port wey hard fought over ein [[Operation Tiger Claw]] while people commot from Cross River were persecuted by [[Biafra|Biafran]] forces as dey were mainly non-Igbo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Omaka |first1=Arua Oko |date=17 February 2014 |title=The Forgotten Victims: Ethnic Minorities in the Nigeria-Biafra War, 1967-1970 |url=https://encompass.eku.edu/jora/vol1/iss1/2/ |journal=Journal of Retracing Africa |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |access-date=15 December 2021}}</ref> At de war's end den de reunification of Nigeria, de [[South-Eastern State, Nigeria|South-Eastern State]] was reformed until 1976 wey it was renamed Cross River State. Eleven years later, Cross River State was divided with western Cross River being broken off to form de new [[Akwa Ibom State]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=This is how the 36 states were created|url=https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/nigerian-states-this-is-how-the-36-states-were-created/mdtnq3e|newspaper=[[Pulse Nigeria]]|access-date=15 December 2021}}</ref> De state formerly contained de oil-producing [[Bakassi peninsula|Bakassi Peninsula]], but it was ceded to [[Cameroon]] under de terms of de [[Greentree Agreement]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4789647.stm|title=Nigeria hands Bakassi to Cameroon|date=14 August 2006|access-date=15 December 2021|work=BBC News|archive-date=6 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106005117/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4789647.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> As an agricultural state, de Cross River's economy partially relies on crops, such as [[cocoyam]], [[Hevea brasiliensis|rubber]], [[oil palm]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]], [[Theobroma cacao|cocoa]], [[cashews]], den [[Cooking banana|plantain]] crops, along with fishing. Key minor industries involve tourism ein den around de wildlife reserves along with de historic [[Ikom Monoliths]] site, [[Calabar Carnival]], den [[Obudu Mountain Resort]]. Cross River state has de [[List of Nigerian states by Human Development Index|joint-thirteenth highest]] [[Human Development Index]] ein de country de numerous institutions of tertiary education.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=The Resources Of Cross River State – Cross River Investment Promotion Bureau (CRIPB) |url=https://ipb.cr.gov.ng/the-resources-of-cross-river-state/ |access-date=2025-01-16 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Human Development Indices |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/ |access-date=15 December 2021 |website=Global Data Lab}}</ref> 1gockq47ir61icie9naeyv3z8djzi4t 0 27734 104135 2026-06-20T13:09:42Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104135 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] j04gjkroqy81cdjco1fhf6gg7ntwkdq 104136 104135 2026-06-20T13:10:52Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104136 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] aqh91ge92ljj8p3o4sgpbo70ddvrlif 104140 104136 2026-06-20T13:18:21Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104140 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 76uqzx0djrol6w0lbesgwms343ie8yc 104143 104140 2026-06-20T13:25:50Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104143 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] r0am5tjtx8hsd8gnpg1rtiu1wamwgec 104148 104143 2026-06-20T13:30:34Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104148 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref>   [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] dxidscntol9uu8nb8sq5o0j749f0o7j 104153 104148 2026-06-20T13:36:53Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104153 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> In November 2020, ZESCO, who own den operate de power station advertised for qualified consulting engineering firms to bid for de job for ''Owner dema Engineer'' on de project of rehabilitation for de 6 MW power station den expansion to a new 15 MW powerhouse.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}</ref>   [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] krkmj63mb3o7j2ss33hwtfas5gqrsp4 104155 104153 2026-06-20T14:36:20Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104155 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> In November 2020, ZESCO, who own den operate de power station advertised for qualified consulting engineering firms to bid for de job for ''Owner dema Engineer'' on de project of rehabilitation for de 6 MW power station den expansion to a new 15 MW powerhouse.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}</ref> Work dey involve converting part of de old power station into a tourist museum. Three new electric turbines, each rated at 5 MW go be installed, for a generation capacity calculated at 73 GWh annually. Two new switchyards one of 66 kV and de other of 33 kV go be constructed next to de powerhouse. High voltage transmission lines go connect de switchyards to de existing Kasama substation, where de power will integrate in de Zambian national grid.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJournal_On_Hydropower_and_Dams2020">Journal On Hydropower and Dams (5 November 2020). [https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ "Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia"]. ''The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams''. Wallington, Surrey, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref>   [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 33zby2hsf18p1dwgbf8mj9aoexn1l4t 104156 104155 2026-06-20T14:37:23Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104156 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> In November 2020, ZESCO, who own den operate de power station advertised for qualified consulting engineering firms to bid for de job for ''Owner dema Engineer'' on de project of rehabilitation for de 6 MW power station den expansion to a new 15 MW powerhouse.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}</ref> Work dey involve converting part of de old power station into a tourist museum. Three new electric turbines, each rated at 5 MW go be installed, for a generation capacity calculated at 73 GWh annually. Two new switchyards one of 66 kV and de other of 33 kV go be constructed next to de powerhouse. High voltage transmission lines go connect de switchyards to de existing Kasama substation, where de power will integrate in de Zambian national grid.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJournal_On_Hydropower_and_Dams2020">Journal On Hydropower and Dams (5 November 2020). [https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ "Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia"]. ''The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams''. Wallington, Surrey, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> Funding for dis work reported to amount to US$46 million dey sourced from KfW Development Bank.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref>   [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 870e2tmnpu1q8q5kcm0ja746rq8fvnm 104157 104156 2026-06-20T14:37:54Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104157 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> In November 2020, ZESCO, who own den operate de power station advertised for qualified consulting engineering firms to bid for de job for ''Owner dema Engineer'' on de project of rehabilitation for de 6 MW power station den expansion to a new 15 MW powerhouse.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}</ref> Work dey involve converting part of de old power station into a tourist museum. Three new electric turbines, each rated at 5 MW go be installed, for a generation capacity calculated at 73 GWh annually. Two new switchyards one of 66 kV and de other of 33 kV go be constructed next to de powerhouse. High voltage transmission lines go connect de switchyards to de existing Kasama substation, where de power will integrate in de Zambian national grid.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJournal_On_Hydropower_and_Dams2020">Journal On Hydropower and Dams (5 November 2020). [https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ "Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia"]. ''The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams''. Wallington, Surrey, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> Funding for dis work reported to amount to US$46 million dey sourced from KfW Development Bank.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref>   * List of power stations in Zambia [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 1vptgm57a8yw4xiyj3i0qj2axhpvthv 104158 104157 2026-06-20T14:38:13Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104158 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> In November 2020, ZESCO, who own den operate de power station advertised for qualified consulting engineering firms to bid for de job for ''Owner dema Engineer'' on de project of rehabilitation for de 6 MW power station den expansion to a new 15 MW powerhouse.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}</ref> Work dey involve converting part of de old power station into a tourist museum. Three new electric turbines, each rated at 5 MW go be installed, for a generation capacity calculated at 73 GWh annually. Two new switchyards one of 66 kV and de other of 33 kV go be constructed next to de powerhouse. High voltage transmission lines go connect de switchyards to de existing Kasama substation, where de power will integrate in de Zambian national grid.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJournal_On_Hydropower_and_Dams2020">Journal On Hydropower and Dams (5 November 2020). [https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ "Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia"]. ''The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams''. Wallington, Surrey, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> Funding for dis work reported to amount to US$46 million dey sourced from KfW Development Bank.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref>   * List of power stations in Zambia {{Reflist|33em}} [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] divv9721u4j7xx1o54hwvn2xx143afp 104159 104158 2026-06-20T14:38:54Z Fafaligafola 6294 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1277157470|Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104159 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dam|name=Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station|name_official=|image=|image_size=|image_caption=|image_alt=|location_map=Zambia#Africa#World|location_map_size=|location_map_caption=Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.|location_map_alt=|coordinates={{coord|10|07|08|S|30|54|52|E|region:ZM_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}|location_map_relief=|country=[[Zambia]]|location=[[Chishimba Falls]], [[Kasama District]]|purpose=P|status=O|construction_began=|opening=|demolished=|cost=US$46 million|owner=[[Government of Zambia]]|operator=[[ZESCO|Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited]]|dam_type=|dam_crosses=Luombe River|dam_height=|dam_height_foundation=|dam_height_thalweg=|dam_length=|dam_elevation_crest=|dam_width_crest=|dam_width_base=|dam_volume=|spillway_count=|spillway_type=|spillway_capacity=|res_name=|res_capacity_total=|res_capacity_active=|res_capacity_inactive=|res_catchment=|res_surface=|res_max_length=|res_max_width=|res_max_depth=|res_elevation=|res_tidal_range=|plant_name=|plant_coordinates=|plant_operator=|plant_commission=|plant_decommission=|plant_type=|plant_hydraulic_head=|plant_turbines=3 x 5 MW|plant_capacity={{convert|15|MW}}|plant_annual_gen=73 GWh|website=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<div class="switcher-container"><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:22.085%;left:75.316%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Chishimba Falls.</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Zambia</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:64.59%;left:68.306%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Africa)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Africa</span></div></div></div><templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:World_location_map_(equirectangular_180).svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Earth]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:55.622%;left:58.587%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Isimba Hydroelectric Power Station (Earth)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Earth</span></div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |[[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], Kasama District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chishimba_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=10_07_08_S_30_54_52_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">10°07′08″S</span> <span class="longitude">30°54′52″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">10.11889°S 30.91444°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-10.11889; 30.91444</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$46 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Luombe River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 5 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |15 megawatts (20,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |73 GWh |} '''Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 15 megawatts (20,000 hp) hydroelectric power station whe sit across de Luombe River insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station, first commissioned insyd 1959, be rehabilitated den expanded insyd 1971 den again expanded den modernized insyd de 2020s. Dis power station dey owned by de Government of Zambia den dey operated den maintained by Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO), de national electricity utility company. De energy generated here dey distributed to de city of Kasama den other parts of Kasama District.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}</ref> De power station dey locate for [[Chisimba Falls|Chishimba Falls]], across de Luombe River, insyd Kasama District, in de Northern Province of Zambia. Dis be approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi), by road, northwest for de city of Kasama, de district den provincial capital. De geographical coordinates for Chishimba HPP be: 10°07'08.0"S, 30°54'52.0"E (Latitude:-10.118889; Longitude:30.914444). De power station dey first commissioned insyd 1959 with generation capacity of 0.9 MW. De power station go throu rehabilitation den expansion, concluding insyd 1971, with new generating capacity of 6 MW.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> In November 2020, ZESCO, who own den operate de power station advertised for qualified consulting engineering firms to bid for de job for ''Owner dema Engineer'' on de project of rehabilitation for de 6 MW power station den expansion to a new 15 MW powerhouse.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}</ref> Work dey involve converting part of de old power station into a tourist museum. Three new electric turbines, each rated at 5 MW go be installed, for a generation capacity calculated at 73 GWh annually. Two new switchyards one of 66 kV and de other of 33 kV go be constructed next to de powerhouse. High voltage transmission lines go connect de switchyards to de existing Kasama substation, where de power will integrate in de Zambian national grid.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=Journal On Hydropower and Dams |date=5 November 2020 |title=Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia |url=https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJournal_On_Hydropower_and_Dams2020">Journal On Hydropower and Dams (5 November 2020). [https://www.hydropower-dams.com/news/owners-engineer-sought-for-chishimba-falls-hydro-project-in-zambia/ "Owner's engineer sought for Chishimba Falls hydro project in Zambia"]. ''The International Journal On Hydropower and Dams''. Wallington, Surrey, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref> Funding for dis work reported to amount to US$46 million dey sourced from KfW Development Bank.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=18 September 2019 |title=Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Afrik21.africa}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFJean_Marie_Takouleu2019">Jean Marie Takouleu (18 September 2019). [https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-46-million-from-kfw-to-renovate-chishimba-hydroelectric-power-plant/ "Zambia: $46 million from KfW to renovate Chishimba hydroelectric power plant"]. ''Afrik21.africa''. Paris, France<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=Teresia Njoroge |date=15 August 2021 |title=Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Construction Review Online}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTeresia_Njoroge2021">Teresia Njoroge (15 August 2021). [https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/zambia-to-rehabilitate-us-46m-chishimba-falls-power-station/ "Zambia to rehabilitate US $46m Chishimba falls power station"]. ''Construction Review Online''. Nairobi, Kenya<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite></ref>   * List of power stations in Zambia <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" /> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] r0hnc2bu1cgm98suuwv129k99iv0vyv 0 27735 104137 2026-06-20T13:11:45Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1324370313|Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station]]" 104137 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station''' ('''KGL'''), ein a {{convert|750|MW}} hydroelectric power station ein [[Zambia]].<ref name="1R">{{cite web |author=Teresia Njoroge |date=4 April 2019 |title=US $2bn Kafue Gorge Lower Hydropower station nears completion |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/2019/01/us-2bn-kafue-gorge-lower-hydropower-station-nears-completion/ |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=Construction Review Online |location=Nairobi}}</ref> oiwvumsxij9fnx03sbplpflvle3ukfz 0 27736 104138 2026-06-20T13:12:13Z Adabre Samuel 6299 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360285331|Batoka Gorge Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104138 wikitext text/x-wiki De proposed '''Batoka Gorge Hydroelectric Power Station''' be 2,400 MW hydroelectric power station wey dem plan to build for Zambezi River on de international border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. kerv0yat0lgx9toiy2f8p4e2jtb3np6 0 27737 104139 2026-06-20T13:16:07Z Joseph Danyo 6325 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293385721|Mumbuluma Falls]]" 104139 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mumbuluma_falls_-_entrance_sign.jpg|right|thumb|225x225px|Entrance signs to de falls]] [[File:Mumbuluma_falls_-_lower_falls.jpg|right|thumb|225x225px|De lower falls]] '''Mumbuluma Falls''' be a set of waterfalls just outsyd [[Mansa, Zambia]] insyd de [[Luapula Province]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McIntyre |first=Chris McIntyre & Susie |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Zambia_Safari_Guide/_iP2EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Mumbuluma%20Falls&pg=PA401&printsec=frontcover |title=Zambia Safari Guide |date=2023-08-11 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-80469-015-4 |pages=401-402 |language=en}}</ref> De waterfalls be a [[National Monuments of Zambia|national monument of Zambia]]. Mumbuluma Falls de made up for two waterfalls wey dey occur in succession, an upper then lower falls.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elbée |first=François d' |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Waterfalls_of_Zambia/D3FwAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Mumbuluma%20Falls&dq=Mumbuluma%20Falls&printsec=frontcover |title=Waterfalls of Zambia |date=2001 |publisher=BP |pages=55 |language=en}}</ref> 9nict66i08equl3pn5bmklkdi2flqph 0 27738 104142 2026-06-20T13:22:57Z Darius Asiam 6303 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1314208158|Lumangwe Falls]]" 104142 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Lumangwe_falls_on_the_Kalungwishi_river_during_the_dry_season(September-October).jpg|thumb|Lumangwe falls wey dey de Kalungwishi top River during de dry season (September-October)]] '''Lumangwe Falls''' insyd de Kalungwishi River insyd northern [[Zambia]] be de largest waterfall wholly insyd de country, wey get a height of 30-40 m nd a width of 100-160 m.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lumangwe Falls |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/waterfalls/lumangwe-falls/ |access-date=2022-02-16 |website=Zambia Tourism |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lumangwe Falls - The Largest Waterfall Entirely in Zambia |url=https://www.world-of-waterfalls.com/waterfalls/africa-lumangwe-falls/ |access-date=2022-02-16 |website=World of Waterfalls |language=en-US}}</ref> ebe block-type waterfall wey dey between de Luapula plus Northern Provinces.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=6 August 2017 |title=Lumangwe Falls: Uncovering Luapula's hidden beauty |url=https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/lumangwe-falls-uncovering-luapulas-hidden-beauty/ |access-date=16 February 2022 |website=Zambia Daily Mail}}</ref> de main bedrock be interbedded quartzite with layers of red siltstone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Olivotos |first=Spiros |last2=Niedermann |first2=Samuel |last3=Flügel |first3=Tyrel |last4=Mouslopoulou |first4=Vasiliki |last5=Merchel |first5=Silke |last6=Cotterill |first6=Fenton |last7=Bookhagen |first7=Bodo |last8=Gärtner |first8=Andreas |last9=Rugel |first9=Georg |last10=Scharf |first10=Andreas |last11=Nadeau |first11=Marie-Josée |date=2021-05-15 |title=Quaternary landscape evolution in a tectonically active rift basin (paleo-lake Mweru, south-central Africa) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X21000775 |journal=Geomorphology |language=en |volume=381 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.107669 |hdl=11250/2980842 |issn=0169-555X |s2cid=233907951 |url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free |article-number=107669}}</ref> De falls be 80 km frm Mporokoso for de Kawambwa road. Eget similar depth of water wey dey fall over de edge to de [[Victoria Falls]] (Mosi-oa-Tunya) on de [[Zambezi]] wey ebe mostly mistaken insyd photographs. Lumangwe Falls dey form part of de Lumangwe Falls / Kabwelume Falls / Chimpepe Falls Complex, a national monument insyd Zambia. For de river height for de end of de rainy season insyd April / May, spray frm de waterfall fit carry 100 m insyd de air den de roaring sound insyd de gorge below fit shake de ground. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></nowiki>''&#x5D;</sup> Lumangwe Falls dey reach via a 10 km earth road wey dey turn west frm de Kawambwa-Mporokoso gravel road, 2.5 km north-east of de Kalungwishi bridge for Chipempe, wey replace d e pontoon (Kalungwishi Ferry) insyd 2004. De falls fit be viewed frm de bank of de river for de top plus frm a cliff wey dey almost opposite de drop. Paths dey lead go de foot of de falls plus down de gorge go Kabwelume Falls 6 km downstream. De falls no see de same level of tourism as de more well-known Victoria Falls. A council planning officer report give deZambia Daily Mail dat dis be secof de area was previously sacred give de chiefs for de district hu dey pay homage give demma ancestors, plus de area was avoided by de common people. Attempts to open de Lumangwe Falls area began in 1975, but were unsuccessful until 1996. Dem attribute give de chiefs agreeing to move de ancestral spirits go different location.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=6 August 2017 |title=Lumangwe Falls: Uncovering Luapula's hidden beauty |url=https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/lumangwe-falls-uncovering-luapulas-hidden-beauty/ |access-date=16 February 2022 |website=Zambia Daily Mail}}</ref> de name of de falls dey come frm a snake spirit, Lumangwe, wey dem say edey stretch itself for de Lumangwe falls plus de [[Kabwelume Falls]], a distance of roughly 5 km. 4h6l5phugd091domjt1chy2pwtrnos7 0 27739 104144 2026-06-20T13:26:22Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1126261533|Ngonye Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104144 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Ngonye Falls Power Station''', is a planned hydroelectric power station across de[[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station will have maximum generating capacity of 180 megawatts (240,000 hp) when completely developed. De energy will be sold to ZESCO under a long-term power purchase agreement.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}</ref> Ebe de named after de nearby [[Ngonye Falls]]. [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 0iqhh1o9wco3mlf9t29iah5urjiutu9 104146 104144 2026-06-20T13:27:28Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1126261533|Ngonye Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104146 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Ngonye Falls Power Station''', is a planned hydroelectric power station across de[[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station will have maximum generating capacity of 180 megawatts (240,000 hp) when completely developed. De energy will be sold to ZESCO under a long-term power purchase agreement.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}</ref> Ebe de named after de nearby [[Ngonye Falls]]. De power station will be located on de east bank of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]], near the town of Sioma, in the Sioma District of de Western Province of Zambia. Sioma is located approximately 175 kilometres (109 mi), by road, south of de city of Mongu, de provincial capital. [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] rdbdcr55kgjv6d07arkzxz9ibwdndf3 104147 104146 2026-06-20T13:30:27Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1126261533|Ngonye Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104147 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Ngonye Falls Power Station''', is a planned hydroelectric power station across de[[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station will have maximum generating capacity of 180 megawatts (240,000 hp) when completely developed. De energy will be sold to ZESCO under a long-term power purchase agreement.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}</ref> Ebe de named after de nearby [[Ngonye Falls]]. De power station will be located on de east bank of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]], near the town of Sioma, in the Sioma District of de Western Province of Zambia. Sioma is located approximately 175 kilometres (109 mi), by road, south of de city of Mongu, de provincial capital. This is approximately 140 kilometres (87 mi) by road, northwest of the town of Sesheke at the international border with [[Namibia]]'s Caprivi Strip. De power station will be a run-of-river type, without an impounding dam or large water reservoir. A 3 kilometres (2 mi) canal on de western bank of River Zambezi will divert de fast-running water to the power station, where de water go Dey turn turbines to generate electricity. A new 220kiloVolt transmission line will convey de energy for de border town of Sesheke, where de energy will enter de national grid. While most of de power be intended for use insyd de Western Province of Zambia, some of it will be available for export to de members of de Southern African Power Pool.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] evoqie0exdocem3ox1ydrle05tsc97l 104149 104147 2026-06-20T13:32:35Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1126261533|Ngonye Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104149 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Ngonye Falls Power Station''', is a planned hydroelectric power station across de[[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station will have maximum generating capacity of 180 megawatts (240,000 hp) when completely developed. De energy will be sold to ZESCO under a long-term power purchase agreement.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}</ref> Ebe de named after de nearby [[Ngonye Falls]]. De power station will be located on de east bank of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]], near the town of Sioma, in the Sioma District of de Western Province of Zambia. Sioma is located approximately 175 kilometres (109 mi), by road, south of de city of Mongu, de provincial capital. This is approximately 140 kilometres (87 mi) by road, northwest of the town of Sesheke at the international border with [[Namibia]]'s Caprivi Strip. De power station will be a run-of-river type, without an impounding dam or large water reservoir. A 3 kilometres (2 mi) canal on de western bank of River Zambezi will divert de fast-running water to the power station, where de water go Dey turn turbines to generate electricity. A new 220kiloVolt transmission line will convey de energy for de border town of Sesheke, where de energy will enter de national grid. While most of de power be intended for use insyd de Western Province of Zambia, some of it will be available for export to de members of de Southern African Power Pool.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Ngonye Falls Hydroelectric Power Station Wey Dey under development, dey owned den is expected to be managed and operated by ''Western Power Company Limited'', de special purpose vehicle company established by de consortium of investors in de power station. De table below illustrates de members of de consortium.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=InfraCo Africa |date=September 2021 |title=Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls |url=https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=InfraCo.Africa.com |place=London, United Kingdom}}</ref> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 31z5m36vi74xeof9q8bab105tzw6105 104151 104149 2026-06-20T13:33:24Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1126261533|Ngonye Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104151 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Ngonye Falls Power Station''', is a planned hydroelectric power station across de[[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station will have maximum generating capacity of 180 megawatts (240,000 hp) when completely developed. De energy will be sold to ZESCO under a long-term power purchase agreement.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}</ref> Ebe de named after de nearby [[Ngonye Falls]]. De power station will be located on de east bank of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]], near the town of Sioma, in the Sioma District of de Western Province of Zambia. Sioma is located approximately 175 kilometres (109 mi), by road, south of de city of Mongu, de provincial capital. This is approximately 140 kilometres (87 mi) by road, northwest of the town of Sesheke at the international border with [[Namibia]]'s Caprivi Strip. De power station will be a run-of-river type, without an impounding dam or large water reservoir. A 3 kilometres (2 mi) canal on de western bank of River Zambezi will divert de fast-running water to the power station, where de water go Dey turn turbines to generate electricity. A new 220kiloVolt transmission line will convey de energy for de border town of Sesheke, where de energy will enter de national grid. While most of de power be intended for use insyd de Western Province of Zambia, some of it will be available for export to de members of de Southern African Power Pool.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Ngonye Falls Hydroelectric Power Station Wey Dey under development, dey owned den is expected to be managed and operated by ''Western Power Company Limited'', de special purpose vehicle company established by de consortium of investors in de power station. De table below illustrates de members of de consortium.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=InfraCo Africa |date=September 2021 |title=Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls |url=https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=InfraCo.Africa.com |place=London, United Kingdom}}</ref> Other partners, consultants den advisers on this project include (a) the Mott MacDonald Group, (b) de Multiconsult Group and the Development Bank of Southern Africa.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=InfraCo Africa |date=September 2021 |title=Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls |url=https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=InfraCo.Africa.com |place=London, United Kingdom}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFInfraCo_Africa2021">InfraCo Africa (September 2021). [https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ "Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls"]. ''InfraCo.Africa.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] n8nqaopbz2j8cxqj0t5i9mg2fbbmq1y 104152 104151 2026-06-20T13:35:53Z Donnarumma Jnr 6301 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1126261533|Ngonye Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104152 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Ngonye Falls Power Station''', is a planned hydroelectric power station across de[[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd [[Zambia]]. De power station will have maximum generating capacity of 180 megawatts (240,000 hp) when completely developed. De energy will be sold to ZESCO under a long-term power purchase agreement.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}</ref> Ebe de named after de nearby [[Ngonye Falls]]. De power station will be located on de east bank of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]], near the town of Sioma, in the Sioma District of de Western Province of Zambia. Sioma is located approximately 175 kilometres (109 mi), by road, south of de city of Mongu, de provincial capital. This is approximately 140 kilometres (87 mi) by road, northwest of the town of Sesheke at the international border with [[Namibia]]'s Caprivi Strip. De power station will be a run-of-river type, without an impounding dam or large water reservoir. A 3 kilometres (2 mi) canal on de western bank of River Zambezi will divert de fast-running water to the power station, where de water go Dey turn turbines to generate electricity. A new 220kiloVolt transmission line will convey de energy for de border town of Sesheke, where de energy will enter de national grid. While most of de power be intended for use insyd de Western Province of Zambia, some of it will be available for export to de members of de Southern African Power Pool.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Ngonye Falls Hydroelectric Power Station Wey Dey under development, dey owned den is expected to be managed and operated by ''Western Power Company Limited'', de special purpose vehicle company established by de consortium of investors in de power station. De table below illustrates de members of de consortium.<ref name="1R">{{Cite web |last=EleQtra |date=March 2021 |title=Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia |url=https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=EleQtra.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEleQtra2021">EleQtra (March 2021). [https://eleqtra.com/projects/western-power-company-hydropower/ "Western Power Company hydropower: Zambia"]. ''EleQtra.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=InfraCo Africa |date=September 2021 |title=Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls |url=https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=InfraCo.Africa.com |place=London, United Kingdom}}</ref> Other partners, consultants den advisers on this project include (a) the Mott MacDonald Group, (b) de Multiconsult Group and the Development Bank of Southern Africa.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=InfraCo Africa |date=September 2021 |title=Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls |url=https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ |access-date=1 September 2021 |website=InfraCo.Africa.com |place=London, United Kingdom}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFInfraCo_Africa2021">InfraCo Africa (September 2021). [https://infracoafrica.com/project/western-power/ "Zambia: Western Power: Harnessing the power of waterfalls"]. ''InfraCo.Africa.com''. London, United Kingdom<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> De hydropower station wey get capacity of 180 megawatts fit generate 830 GWh of clean carbon free renewable energy every year. That one enough to supply 350,000 Zambian households.[1][2][3] [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 37qcat3e713p2h7rrtoawruatj12e2i 0 27740 104145 2026-06-20T13:26:55Z Adabre Samuel 6299 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1355522952|Zengamina]]" 104145 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zengamina''' be small hydroelectric power plant wey dey near Kalene Hill for Ikelenge District in northwestern Zambia. E build am between 2004 and 2008, and e cost about $3 million, or around $4,285 per kilowatt of power. 5eqvcoobytp1o2qxrg80giv6pg0awxg 0 27741 104150 2026-06-20T13:33:19Z Dzidedavid 6300 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293386185|Ntumbachushi Falls]]" 104150 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ntumbachushi Falls''' (sanso be ''Ntumbacusi'' den ''Ntumbacushi'') wey be situated for de [[Ngona River]] for [[Luapula Province]], [[Zambia]] where edey run over de edge for de northern Zambian plateau insyd de valley for de [[Luapula River]]. De main falls occur where de river splits insyd two channels to form two parallel waterfalls each about 10 m wide with a drop for about 30 m, den separat by a distance for 50 m. A small patch for [[relict rainforest]] grow ein de spray from de fall. During den immediately after de rainy season, November to April, de water coming over de edge may have a depth for up to 1 m, but ebe de later dry season dey flow may reduce to a produce a 'bridalveil' effect. Ntumbachushi ebe notable not just for de main falls, however, but for de series for smaller falls den pools stretching for de distance for more than 2 km above de main fall, ebe de landscape wey dey describe for many as among de most beautiful for de central Africa, with unusual vegetation, rocky outcrops den views over de Luapula valley. De water for de Ngona be filtered by de [[wetlands]] (locally called dambos) out for which wey dey drain den be lyk exceptionally clear, affording safe river swimming considered by many visitors to be de best for Zambia. De falls be 22 km from [[Mbereshi]] on de tarred [[Kawambwa]] road den wey dey reach via for 1 km spur which turns off at de bottom for de [[escarpment]] den approaches de bottom for de main fall. A steep path 20 m for de north side for de main falls wey dey lead up den over de rocky cliff den continue for 0.5 km to a place nicknamed 'de beauty spot' consisting for two pools below a fall for about 6 m high den 25 m wide insyd two sections. Above de main falls we get two further falls wey dey drop exceeding for 5 m. We get two shrines close to de main falls wey dey local traditional leaders den healers for dema perform rituals. rybycpm5tasyymtpgkw95fs5qpmgu47 0 27742 104154 2026-06-20T13:49:15Z Kewl Sunshine 45 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1238216826|Lunsemfwa Lower Hydroelectric Power Station]]" 104154 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Lunsemfwa Lower Hydroelectric Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Lunsemfwa Lower Hydroelectric Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:65.201%;left:60.944%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Lunsemfwa Lower Hydroelectric Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Lunsemfwa Lower Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Dis be de Map of Zambia weh e de show u de location of Lunsemfwa Lower Hydroelectric Power Station</div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |Luano District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Lunsemfwa_Lower_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=14_38_46_S_29_07_05_E_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">14°38′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">29°07′05″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">14.64611°S 29.11806°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-14.64611; 29.11806</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Lunsemfwa_Lower_Hydroelectric_Power_Station&params=14_38_46_S_29_07_05_E_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">14°38′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">29°07′05″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">14.64611°S 29.11806°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-14.64611; 29.11806</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Proposed |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;began | class="infobox-data" |2023 Expected |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Opening&nbsp;date | class="infobox-data" |2027 Expected |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$300 million |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |''Lunsemfwa Hydro Power Company'' |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |Lunsemfwa River |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Reservoir |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Normal&nbsp;elevation | class="infobox-data" |1,300&nbsp;m (4,300&nbsp;ft) |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Commission&nbsp;date | class="infobox-data" |2027 Expected |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |3 x 85MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |255&nbsp;MW (342,000&nbsp;hp) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |[[Power station|Annual&nbsp;generation]] | class="infobox-data" |1,630 GWh |} == Where edey == De power station dey across the Lunsemfwa River, for Zambia ein Central Province, edey de 40 MW Mulungushi Hydroelectric Power Station den de 18 MW Lunsemfwa Hydroelectric Power Station ein downside. == People weh build am == Way back lyk 2010, Lunsemfwa Hydro Power Company and InfraCo Africa Limited, plan sey dem go ron power station for de Lunsemfwa River top. Den tym, dem plan sey dem go do 120 MW project weh e go cost lyk US$220 million to US$275 million. Eleven years later, dem plan 255 MW plant plas InfraCo so dem take de job giv EleQtra. So LHPC de own am now. == De Cost den time == [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 8svvx1xwao801o4qfwatqiz8tb2bblx 14 27743 104173 2026-06-20T17:24:21Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104173 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27744 104174 2026-06-20T17:24:32Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104174 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27745 104175 2026-06-20T17:24:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104175 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27746 104176 2026-06-20T17:24:55Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104176 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27747 104177 2026-06-20T17:25:06Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104177 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27748 104178 2026-06-20T17:25:17Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104178 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 1 27749 104180 2026-06-20T17:54:29Z DaSupremo 9 /* Translations */ new section 104180 wikitext text/x-wiki == Translations == Hello @[[User:Achiri Bitamsimli|Achiri Bitamsimli]], thanks for translating this article to the Ghanaian Pidgin. We really appreciate your contributions. Please I would like to draw your attention to certain words used. Words like ''<nowiki/>'don'<nowiki/>'' and ''<nowiki/>'na''' sounds more of Nigeria Pidgin than Ghanaian Pidgin. Also we use 'den' in place of 'and', 'de' in place of 'the'. Kindly take note and make the necessary changes. I have corrected some and it would be appreciated if you correct the rest. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:54, 20 June 2026 (GMT) bodkz9zvdoawgjyu6undmpjyqsbxy8m 14 27750 104181 2026-06-20T17:55:28Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104181 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27751 104283 2026-06-20T21:34:43Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1355536984|Sous]]" 104283 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles> {{Infobox settlement <!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--> <!-- Basic info ---------------->|<!-- Politics ----------------->|name=Sus|native_name={{unbulleted list |{{native name|ar|بلد سوس }} |{{native name|shi|ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵙ}} }}|native_name_lang=|nickname=|settlement_type=Region|motto=<!-- images and maps ----------->|image_skyline={{Photomontage | photo1a = Souss map 19th century.png | photo2a = Argania spinosa habitat2.jpg | photo2b = | photo3a = | size = 275 | spacing = 2 | color = transparent | border = 0 }}|imagesize=300px|image_caption=The Sous, here northeast of [[Taroudant]], with [[Argan]] trees interplanted with cereal crops|image_flag=|flag_size=|image_seal=|seal_size=|image_shield=|shield_size=|image_map=|mapsize=|map_caption=|pushpin_map=Morocco<!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map -->|pushpin_label_position=bottom|pushpin_mapsize=|pushpin_map_caption=Location in Morocco <!-- Location ------------------>|subdivision_type=Country|subdivision_name={{flag|Morocco}}|subdivision_type1=[[Regions of Morocco|Region]]|subdivision_name1=[[Souss-Massa]], [[Guelmim-Oued Noun]]|subdivision_type2=|subdivision_name2=|subdivision_type3=|subdivision_name3=|government_footnotes=|government_type=|leader_title=|leader_name=|leader_title1=<!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager -->|leader_name1=|established_title=<!-- Settled -->|established_date=<!-- Area --------------------->|area_magnitude=|unit_pref=Metric <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired-->|area_footnotes=|area_total_km2=<!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion-->|area_land_km2=<!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> <!-- Population ----------------------->|population_as_of=|population_footnotes=|population_note=|population_total=|population_rank=|population_density_km2=|population_density_sq_mi=|population_metro=|population_density_metro_km2=|population_density_metro_sq_mi=|population_blank1_title=Ethnicities|population_blank1=|population_density_blank1_km2=|population_density_blank1_sq_mi=<!-- General information --------------->|timezone=|utc_offset=|coordinates={{coord|30.4|N|9|W|region:MA|display=inline}}|elevation_footnotes=<!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags-->|elevation_m=|elevation_ft=<!-- Area/postal codes & others -------->|postal_code_type=<!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... -->|postal_code=|area_code=|blank_name=|blank_info=|blank1_name=|blank1_info=|website=|footnotes=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Infobox settlement/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox ib-settlement vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" |<div class="fn org">Sus</div> <div class="nickname ib-settlement-native"><templatestyles src="Plainlist/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="plainlist"> * <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بلد سوس</span></span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Arabic)</span> * <span title="Tachelhit-language text"><span lang="shi">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵙ</span></span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Tachelhit)</span> </div></div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" |<div class="category">Region</div> |- class="mergedtoprow" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<div style="background-color:transparent;color:inherit;border-collapse:collapse;border:0px solid black;width:275px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:2px 0 0 2px"><div style="display:table;background-color:transparent;color:inherit;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0">[[File:Souss_map_19th_century.png|275x275px]]</div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:transparent;color:inherit;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0">[[File:Argania_spinosa_habitat2.jpg|275x275px]]</div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="ib-settlement-caption">The Sous, here northeast of Taroudant, with Argan trees interplanted with cereal crops</div> |- class="mergedtoprow" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px">[[File:Morocco_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|250x250px|Sus is located in Morocco]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:65.363%;left:35.135%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-3px;top:-3px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|6x6px|Sus]]</div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:4px;left:-3em"><div>Sus</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location in Morocco</div></div></div></div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |Coordinates: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sous&params=30.4_N_9_W_region:MA_type:city <span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">30°24′N</span> <span class="longitude">9°00′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">30.4°N 9°W</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">30.4; -9</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- class="mergedtoprow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |<span class="flagicon nowrap">[[File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg|link=|alt=|border|23x23px]] </span>[[Morocco]] |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Region | class="infobox-data" |Souss-Massa, Guelmim-Oued Noun |} De '''Sous region''' (also spelt '''Sus''', '''Suss''', '''Souss''' or '''Sousse''') (Arabic: سوس, romanized: sūs, Tachelhit: ⵙⵓⵙ, romanized: sus) wey historical, cultural den geographical region of [[Morocco]], which constitutes part of de region administration of Souss-Massa den Guelmim-Oued Noun. De region wey known for de endemic argan tree (which has become a symbol of Souss) as well as for being de capital of de Shilha Berber ethnic group. Ebe major commercial den tourist agricultural region of Morocco. Vegetable production, shared between very large farms den small producers, contributes to de economic development of de region. De Souss plain produces 40% of Moroccan citrus fruits, den 60% of de production of early vegetables.<ref name="Brill">{{Cite book |last=Lévi Provençal |first=E. |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/al-sus-al-aksa-SIM_5549 |title=Brill Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition |date=1913–1936 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004082656 |chapter=al-Sūs al-Aḳṣā |format=Web |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> wey be historically a stage of [[trans-Saharan trade]]. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></nowiki>''&#x5D;</sup> == History == Medieval Arab geographers generally divided de Sous region into two distinct sub-regions: '''''as-Sūs al-Aqṣā''''' (السوس الأقصى 'de far Sus'), and '''''as-Sūs al-Adnā''''' (السوس الأدنى 'the near Sus').<ref name="Brill">{{Cite book |last=Lévi Provençal |first=E. |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/al-sus-al-aksa-SIM_5549 |title=Brill Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition |date=1913–1936 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004082656 |chapter=al-Sūs al-Aḳṣā |format=Web |access-date=8 March 2022}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFLévi_Provençal1913–1936">Lévi Provençal, E. (1913–1936). "al-Sūs al-Aḳṣā". [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/al-sus-al-aksa-SIM_5549 ''Brill Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition''] <span class="cs1-format">(Web)</span>. BRILL. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-9004082656|<bdi>978-9004082656</bdi>]]<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span data-ve-ignore=""> </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment" data-ve-ignore=""><code class="cs1-code"><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[Template:Cite book|cite book]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment" data-ve-ignore="">ISBN / Date incompatibility ([[Help:CS1 errors#invalid isbn date|help]])</span> [[Category:CS1 errors: ISBN date]]</ref><ref name="Mohamed 2012">{{Cite book |last=Mohamed |first=Mohamed Hassan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zbQyAQAAQBAJ&dq=%22sus+al-aqsa%22&pg=PA110 |title=Between Caravan and Sultan: The Bayruk of Southern Morocco: A Study in History and Identity |date=2012 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004183827 |location=Leiden, Boston |pages=19–20 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="Coppée 1881">{{Cite book |last=Coppée |first=Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtcPAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Sus+al-Aksa%22&pg=PA68 |title=History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors: With a Sketch of the Civilization which They Achieved, and Imparted to Europe, Volume 1 |date=1881 |publisher=Little, Brown, & Company |location=Boston |pages=68, 190, 351 |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> ''Sus al-Aqsa'' consisted of de southern/western part, den ''Sus al-Adna'' consisted of de northern/eastern part; however, there were never any precise boundaries between de two.<ref name="Coppée 1881" /> de capital of de Sous was at Igli. There was also a ribat at Massa near de Atlantic coast.<ref name="Jenkins 1979" /> * Boogert, Nico van den. De ''Berber Literary Tradition of de Sous: with an edition den translation of 'de Ocean of Tears' by Muḥammad Awzal (d. 1749)'', Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1997.   * Montagne, Robert. ''Les Berbères et le Makhzen dans le sud du Maroc; essai sur la transformation politique des Berbères sédentaires (groupe Chleuh)''. Rabat: Dar Al-Aman, 2013  . * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050921090812/http://www2.unesco.org/mab/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?code=MOR+01&mode=all UNESCO Arganeraie Biosphere Reserve] [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 4wmkfnie9tdy7h00qmxeph6k6d9t7hp 0 27752 104289 2026-06-20T21:43:24Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1271262829|Onive River]]" 104289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox river|name='''Onive River'''|name_native=|name_native_lang=|name_other=|name_etymology=<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->|image=Tsinjoarivo.jpg|image_size=|image_caption=The Onive near [[Tsinjoarivo, Ambatolampy|Tsinjoarivo]]|map=Rijeka mangoro.png|map_size=|map_caption=Onive River|pushpin_map=|pushpin_map_size=|pushpin_map_caption=<!---------------------- LOCATION -->|subdivision_type1=Country|subdivision_name1=[[Madagascar]]|subdivision_type2=|subdivision_name2=|subdivision_type3=|subdivision_name3=|subdivision_type4=|subdivision_name4=|subdivision_type5=|subdivision_name5=<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->|length=|width_min=|width_avg=|width_max=|depth_min=|depth_avg=|depth_max=|discharge1_location=|discharge1_min=|discharge1_avg=|discharge1_max=<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->|source1=|source1_location=[[Antanifotsy]]|source1_coordinates=|source1_elevation=|mouth=|mouth_location=[[Mangoro River]]|mouth_coordinates={{coord|19|42|17.639|S|48|2|50.848|E|display=inline,title}}|mouth_elevation=|progression=|river_system=|basin_size={{convert|4860|km2|abbr=on}}|tributaries_left=|tributaries_right=|custom_label=|custom_data=|extra=}} [[File:Carte_bassin_Mangoro.svg|left|thumb|the Onive & Mangoro river bassin]] De '''Onive River''' be river wey dey eastern [[Madagascar]]. Edey flows down from de Ankaratra massif, den ebe de largest tributary of de [[Mangoro River]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-11-25 |title=MADAGASCAR: New Livelihoods to Protect A River's Life |url=http://www.globalissues.org/news/2010/11/25/7760 |access-date=2013-03-05 |website=Global Issues, Inter Press Service}}</ref> Notable waterfalls, with a 30m vertical drop, wey located southwest of de village of Tsinjoarivo.{{Reflist}} [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] qqdk8hwxb45doi7fqmfsgie9pm6vzse 0 27753 104321 2026-06-20T22:34:16Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1350079752|Tana River County]]" 104321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement|||official_name=Tana River County|image_skyline=DM-SD-01-06042.jpg|image_size=|image_caption=Tana|image_flag=Flag of Tana River County.gif|image_shield=|image_map=Tana River County in Kenya.svg|map_caption=Location in Kenya|settlement_type=[[Counties of Kenya|County]]|subdivision_type=Country|subdivision_name={{flag|Kenya}}|coordinates={{coord|1|30|S|40|0|E|type:adm2nd_region:KE-300|display=inline,title}}|seat_type=Capital|seat=[[Hola, Kenya|Hola]]|established_title=Formed|established_date=4 March 2013|leader_title=[[County Governors of Kenya|Governor]]|leader_name=[[Godhana Dhadho Gaddae]]|timezone=[[East Africa Time|EAT]]|utc_offset=+3|area_total_km2=35,375.8|area_land_km2=|area_water_km2=|population_as_of=2019|population_total=512,000|population_density_km2=auto|demographics_type1=GDP (PPP)|demographics1_title1=[[GDP]]|demographics1_info1={{decrease }} $818 Million (45th)(2022)<ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.knbs.or.ke/gross-county-product/ |title=GCP |access-date=31 August 2021}}</ref>|demographics1_title2=[[GDP|Per Capita]]|demographics1_info2={{decrease }} $2,379 (2022) (45th)|demographics_type2=GDP (NOMINAL)|demographics2_title1=GDP|demographics2_info1={{decrease}} $301 Million (2022) (45th)|demographics2_title2=Per Capita|demographics2_info2={{decrease}} $874 (2022) (42nd)|elevation_m=|blank_name=|blank_info=|website=[http://tanariver.go.ke/ tanariver.go.ke]|footnotes=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Infobox settlement/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox ib-settlement vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" |<div class="fn org">Tana River County</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" |<div class="category">[[Counties of Kenya|County]]</div> |- class="mergedtoprow" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |[[File:DM-SD-01-06042.jpg|250x250px|Tana]]<div class="ib-settlement-caption">Tana</div> |- class="mergedtoprow" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data maptable" |<templatestyles src="Infobox settlement/columns/styles.css" /> <div class="ib-settlement-cols"> <div class="ib-settlement-cols-row"><div class="ib-settlement-cols-cell">[[File:Flag_of_Tana_River_County.gif|border|100x100px|Flag of Tana River County]]<div class="ib-settlement-caption-link">Flag</div></div></div></div> |- class="mergedtoprow" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |[[File:Tana_River_County_in_Kenya.svg|275x275px|Location in Kenya]]<div class="ib-settlement-caption">Location in Kenya</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |Coordinates: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tana_River_County&params=1_30_S_40_0_E_type:adm2nd_region:KE-300 <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">1°30′S</span> <span class="longitude">40°0′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">1.500°S 40.000°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-1.500; 40.000</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tana_River_County&params=1_30_S_40_0_E_type:adm2nd_region:KE-300 <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">1°30′S</span> <span class="longitude">40°0′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">1.500°S 40.000°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-1.500; 40.000</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- class="mergedtoprow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |<span class="flagicon nowrap">[[File:Flag_of_Kenya.svg|link=|alt=|border|23x23px]] </span>[[Kenya]] |- class="mergedtoprow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Formed | class="infobox-data" |4 March 2013 |- class="mergedtoprow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Capital | class="infobox-data" |Hola |- class="mergedtoprow" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" |Government<div class="ib-settlement-fn"></div> |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |&nbsp;•&nbsp;Governor | class="infobox-data" |Godhana Dhadho Gaddae |- class="mergedtoprow" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" |Area<div class="ib-settlement-fn"></div> |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="white-space:nowrap;">&nbsp;•&nbsp;Total</div> | class="infobox-data" |35,375.8&nbsp;km² (13,658.7&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) |- class="mergedtoprow" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" |Population<div class="ib-settlement-fn"><span class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>(2019)</div> |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="white-space:nowrap;">&nbsp;•&nbsp;Total</div> | class="infobox-data" |512,000 |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |&nbsp;•&nbsp;Density | class="infobox-data" |14.5/km² (37.5/sq&nbsp;mi) |- class="mergedtoprow" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" |GDP (PPP)<div class="ib-settlement-fn"></div> |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |&nbsp;•&nbsp;GDP | class="infobox-data" |[[File:Decrease2.svg|link=|11x11px|Decrease]] $818 Million (45th)(2022) |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |&nbsp;•&nbsp;Per Capita | class="infobox-data" |[[File:Decrease2.svg|link=|11x11px|Decrease]] $2,379 (2022) (45th) |- class="mergedtoprow" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" |GDP (NOMINAL)<div class="ib-settlement-fn"></div> |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |&nbsp;•&nbsp;GDP | class="infobox-data" |[[File:Decrease2.svg|link=|11x11px|Decrease]] $301 Million (2022) (45th) |- class="mergedrow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |&nbsp;•&nbsp;Per Capita | class="infobox-data" |[[File:Decrease2.svg|link=|11x11px|Decrease]] $874 (2022) (42nd) |- class="mergedtoprow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Time zone | class="infobox-data" |UTC+3 (EAT) |- class="mergedtoprow" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Website | class="infobox-data" |[http://tanariver.go.ke/ tanariver.go.ke] |} '''Tana River County''' ebe county wey dey former Coast Province of [[Kenya]]. Dem named after de [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana River]], de longest river ein Kenya. Eget an area of 38,437 km2 (14,841 sq mi) den eget a population of 315,943 as of de 2019 census. De county borders Kitui County to de west, Garissa County to de northeast, Isiolo County to de north, Lamu County to de southeast, Kilifi County to de south den de Indian ocean<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.tanariver.go.ke/about-us-2/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=County Government of Tana River |language=en-US}}</ref> De administrative headquarters of de county is Hola wey known as Galole. De County has five sub Counties; Tana Delta, Tana River, Tana North, Galedyertu, and Bangal. Apart from de River Tana, there are several seasonal rivers ein de county wey popularly known as Galan, wey dey flow enter west–east direction from Kitui den Makueni Counties, draining into de River Tana den eventually into de Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.tanariver.go.ke/about-us-2/ |access-date=18 December 2022 |website=County Government of Tana River}}</ref> De historic town of Ungwana, near de mouth of fe [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana River]], is home to two important mosques that share a curious relationship with de great mosques of Gedi. === De Friday mosque: expansion den transformation === De city's Friday mosque, originally 17 metres long, featured an ogee arch framing de mihrab (prayer niche). Decorative coral bosses den de imprint of a lost square plaque (possibly ceramic or marble) adorned de lintel. Archaeological excavations have unearthed ceramic fragments dating to de 14th century, giving an indication of de possible date of de mosque's construction. A significant extension to de east marked de early 15th century for de Friday mosque. Dis new rectangular section mirrored de length of de original structure but offered slightly more width. De prayer hall was divided into four bays separated by three rows of six square columns. De extension included additional entrances: four to de west provided access to de older section, while two with ogee arches to de east led to an antechamber and rooms flanking de mihrab. A notable feature of dis extension ebe de addition of an octagonal pillar directly opposite de mihrab den a substantial seven-step minbar built against de qibla wall. De back of de minbar had intricate plaster mouldings, den small holes indicated de presence of a former wooden balustrade. These changes, estimated to have occurred between 1400 den 1450, raise intriguing questions about de motivations behind such a significant transformation. === Interesting parallels with Gedi === De timing of dis expansion of de Friday mosque coincides with de construction of de new Grand Mosque in Gedi. Dis synchronicity suggests a possible connection, possibly related to a wider religious or political shift ein de region around de mouth of de Tana River den Mida Bay. Ein particular, de addition of de third column opposite de mihrab may not have been purely functional but may reflect de influence of another Muslim sect within de community. Ungwana boasts a second mosque with a collection of intriguing architectural elements. De northern section of dis mosque retains its original teak lintels imported from India, intricately carved with alveolar motifs. De mihrab arch has a unique design, combining an ogee shape with a semicircle at the apex. De structure displays a rich array of decorative elements, including inlaid ceramics on de lintel den tympanum, an architrave decorated with fish bone motifs, den single-block coral columns with inlaid panels. De apse plan deviates from de norm, with triangular shapes den mouldings. Ein particular, de mihrab wey surmounted by a bulbous dome topped with a ceramic celadon bottle, similar to that of de Fakhr al-Din mosque, instead of a semi-dome. Dis borrowing of de bulbous dome concept suggests a diffusion of styles across the region. However, its widespread adoption may have been limited by de complex construction techniques required. === Chronology den possibilities for further research === De existence den unique features of de second mosque present a fascinating chronological puzzle. Could it be det dis 'second' structure was actually Ungwana's first great mosque, built ein de 13th century? Perhaps it was later replaced by de larger Friday mosque, built ein de 14th century den rebuilt ein de 15th century. De architectural legacy of Ungwana's mosques, with their intriguing parallels to Gedi and hints of external influences, offers a glimpse into de dynamic artistic den religious landscape of de Swahili coast. Further research, including a more comprehensive analysis of de archaeological data den a comparative study of regional architectural trends, wey needed to fully unravel the chronological mysteries den understand de cultural exchanges det shaped these captivating structures. Despite de large area of de [https://ke.geoview.info/tana_river_district,179585 Tana River district], its only local authority wey Tana River County Council. De district has three constituencies: Garsen, Galole den Bura,15 wards, 54 locations, and 109 sub-Locations [https://girlchildnetwork.org/where-we-work/tana/].   De county consists of 81% Muslims, 18% Christians de1% of people ein other religions (including Atheism). De largest ethnic groups are de Orma and de Wardey Somali people, both traditionally pastoralist communities who raise cattle, sheep den goats and camels. Following dem are de Pokomo, traditionally farmers. De county wey generally dry den prone to drought. Rainfall be erratic, with rainy seasons ein March–May den October–December. Conflicts have occurred between farmers den other people over access to water. Flooding is also a regular problem, caused by heavy rainfall ein upstream areas of de Tana River.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Earth from Space: Tana River |url=https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Tana_River |access-date=18 December 2022 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}}</ref> A recent survey prepared by ALMRP, Tana River District presented to de Tana River District Steering Group (2004) found det de county wey be 79% food insecure den with an incidence of poverty at 62% (Interim Poverty Strategy Paper (I-PSP), 2000–2003, Kenya). On 22 August 2012, ein de worst violent incident ein Kenya since 2007, at least 52 people were killed ein ethnic violence ein Tana River County between de Orma den Pokomo communities residing ein Tana River County.<ref name="AJ">{{Cite web |date=22 August 2012 |title=Dozens killed in Kenya clashes |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/08/201282214141543505.html |access-date=22 August 2012 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> Bura Irrigation and Settlement Project wey located ein Tana River County. During de years 1981-1988 about 2,200 families from different parts of Kenya were settled ein dis irrigation scheme. Tana River County consists of forest, woodland and grassland which are minor centers of endemism. De forests are designated National Reserve status if dey have >4 plant endemics den >7 vertebrate endemics (IUCN, 2003). Despite de apparent adequate natural resources, de region remains marginalized from de rest of the country. Efforts at development always seem to center on de huge River Tana, despite massive failures in all the previous irrigation projects in de district, i.e. Bura, Hola and the [https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5514/ Tana delta] rice irrigation project which failed after de water works were damaged by de El Niño rains in 1998. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></nowiki>''&#x5D;</sup> Other economic activities ein [https://learn.e-limu.org/topic/view/?t=1525&c=468 Tana River county] include mining with gems such as Iron ore, Uranium, Gypsum, Barite and illmenite [https://www.kenyacountyguide.co.ke/tana-river-county/]. * 2014 Lamu attacks <references> <ref name="Census2019">{{Cite web |title=2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics |url=https://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/VOLUME-IV-KPHC-2019.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/VOLUME-IV-KPHC-2019.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=2 May 2021 |website=Kenya National Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> </references> [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 2eowcx6c9p7utx2l2jegd6ntkf198q7 14 27754 104325 2026-06-20T23:40:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104325 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27755 104326 2026-06-20T23:42:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104326 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27756 104327 2026-06-20T23:43:07Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104327 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27757 104333 2026-06-21T11:56:18Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293652014|Komo River]]" 104333 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Le_Komo.JPG|thumb|Sign at a bridge of the river Komo]] De '''Komo''' (French: ''Rivière Komo'', Spanish: ''Río Komo'') ebe river of [[Equatorial Guinea]] den [[Gabon]]. Edey flows for 230 kilometres (140 mi).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Course sidekick |url=https://www.coursesidekick.com/geography/4210291 |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=www.coursesidekick.com}}</ref> It rises ein Equatorial Guinea ein de southwestern part of de Woleu-Ntem plateau.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Course sidekick |url=https://www.coursesidekick.com/geography/4210291 |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=www.coursesidekick.com}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.coursesidekick.com/geography/4210291 "Course sidekick"]. ''www.coursesidekick.com''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-02</span></span>.</cite></ref> However much of its watershed is in the territory of Gabon. De largest tributary of de River Komo is de Mbeya River. Its course is disturbed by geological barriers det produce waterfalls as those at Tchimbélé den [[Kinguélé]]. Dey are potential hydroelectric power sources for Libreville. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></nowiki>''&#x5D;</sup> jogoev0tackoz04nt44wvvm9y7pq1bw