Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.7 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 5347 104356 40713 2026-06-21T20:33:10Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q258200}}'''Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training den Entrepreneurial Development''', alias AAMUSTED is a public university in [[Kumasi]], [[Ashanti Region]], [[Ghana]]. They establish de university under 1026 Act of 2020 of de Parliament of de [[:en:Ghana|Republic of Ghana]] so say ego champion de course of higher technical, vocational den entrepreneurial education wey de country insyd.<ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/more-than-800-students-denied-admission-to-aamusted-due-to-inadequate-staff-and-facilities/ "More than 800 students denied admission to AAMUSTED due to inadequate staff and facilities - MyJoyOnline"]. ''www.myjoyonline.com''. 2022-03-23. Retrieved 2024-05-29.</ref> Dem form university from de amalgamation of de College of Technology Education, Kumasi (COLTEK) den de College of Agriculture Education (CAGRIC), Asante- Mampong wey dem na both once be campuses of de University College of Education, Winneba (UCEW).<ref>[https://manhyiapalace.org/how-asantehene-influenced-establishment-of-aamusted/ "How Asantehene Influenced Establishment Of AAMUSTED – Manhyia Palace"]. Retrieved 2024-05-29.</ref><ref>[https://aamusted.edu.gh/about/ "Academic Calender"]. ''AAMUSTED''. Retrieved 2024-05-29.</ref> == Dema History == For August 27, 2020 insyd, dem convert de College of Technology Education, Kumasi den College of Agriculture Education, Asante- Mampong den form de Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training den Entrepreneurial Development. De name dey honor Mr. Akenten Appiah-Menka wey be Ghanaian Lawyer, Politician den Businessman.<ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/asantehene-reiterates-need-for-more-investments-in-tvet-education/ "Asantehene reiterates need for more investments in TVET education - MyJoyOnline"]. ''www.myjoyonline.com''. 2021-05-04. Retrieved 2024-05-29.</ref><ref>Donald, Ato Dapatem (25 May 2018). [https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghanaians-pay-last-respects-to-appiah-menka.html "Ghanaians pay last respects to Appiah-Menka"]. ''Graphic online''.</ref><ref>annan, e (2018-02-14). [https://web.archive.org/web/20240529154928/https://www.pulse.com.gh/ece-frontpage/rip-npp-stalwart-appiah-menka-dies/3hpslgv "NPP stalwart Appiah Menka dies"]. ''Pulse Ghana''. Retrieved 2024-05-29.</ref> Dem establish de College of Technology Education, Kumasi (COLTEK ) for de year 1966 insyd as Technical Teachers College (TTC), later wey dem change go Kumasi Advanced Technical Teachers College (KATTC) for 1978 insyd. De College of Agriculture Education (CAGRIC), Asante - Mampong for de oda hand get am from St. Andrews Training College wey dey Akropong-Akwapim wey Presbyterian Church of Ghana den de Scottish Mission establish for 1946 insyd.<ref>Enoch, Darfa Frimpong (27 November 2020). [https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/uew-kumasi-and-mampong-campuses-changes-name-to-aam-usted-gets-own-governing-council.html "UEW Kumasi and Mampong campuses changes name to AAM-USTED; gets own governing council"]. ''Graphic online''.</ref><ref>Florence, Afriyie Mensah (27 May 2023). [https://gna.org.gh/2023/05/govt-must-commit-to-resource-aamusted-in-achieving-mandate-asantehene/ "Gov't must commit to resourcing AAMUSTEED to achieve it mandate-Asantehene"]. ''Ghana news agency''.</ref> Dem join both colleges togeda plus oda seven (7) educational institutions wey dem form de University of College Education for 1992 under de PNDC Law 322. Prof. Frederick Kwaku Sarfo be de first den current Vice-Chancellor of de university.<ref>GTonline (2022-10-13). [https://www.ghanaiantimes.com.gh/aamusted-launches-technovate-to-enhance-students-skills/ "AAMUSTED launches 'Technovate' to enhance students' skills"]. ''Ghanaian Times''. Retrieved 2024-05-29.</ref> == Dema Campuses == === Kumasi Campus === De Kumasi campus wey dey Tanoso be de main campus of de university. Dis campus alone dey house 5 faculties plus 12 Departments of de university.<ref>Kweku, Zurek (3 September 2023). [https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/video-aamusted-student-dies-following-tragic-fire-ritual.html "AAMUSTED student dies following tragic fire ritual"]. ''Graphic Online''.</ref> === Mampong Campus === De Asante-Mampong campus dey 63 kilometers away from de main campus. Edey Asante-Mampong wey be de capital of de Mampong Municipal Assembly. De campus dey house 4 faculties den 11 Department. == Dema Academic == === Faculties - Kumasi === * Faculty of Applied Science den Mathematics Education * Faculty of Business Education * Faculty of Technical Education * Faculty of Education den Communication Science * Faculty of Vocational Education === Faculties - Mampong === * Faculty of Agriculture Science Education * Faculty of Science Education * Faculty of Environmental den Health Education * Faculty of Education and General studies. == References == [[Category:Education insyd Kumasi]] [[Category:Universities insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Africa]] [[Category:Universities insyd West Africa]] [[Category:Education insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Education insyd West Africa]] [[Category:Education insyd Africa]] <references /> [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 2020]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 2020]] pktpmn5pswkwgmzergihn27re3mcm0a 0 5504 104369 35036 2026-06-22T04:02:23Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta''' be one of de higher institutions of learning wey de Federal Government of Government dey own den run am. == History == For de initial stage, na dem introduce five colleges go de varsity for October 1988 insyd, as follows: * College of Agricultural Management, Rural development den Communication Studies (COLAMRUCS), later dem rename am to COLAMRUD (College of Agriculture Management den Rural Development), * College of Animal Science den Livestock Production (COLANIM) * College of Environmental Resources Management (COLERM) * College of Natural Sciences (COLNAS) Dem reform den redraft de College of Natural Science into three colleges, wich be: * College of Physical Sciences (COLPHYS) * College of Biological Science (COLBIOS), den * College of Plant Science den Crop Production (COLPLANT) Two additional colleges, de College of Engineering (COLENG) den de College of Veterinary Medicine (COLVET), na dem introduce dem insyd March 2002. During de 2008/2009 session, dem split de College of Agricultural Management, Rural Development, den Communication Studies into two, plus two fresh colleges wey dey emerge as follows: * College of Food Science den Human Ecology (COLFHEC) * College of Agricultural Management den Rural Development (COLAMRUD) De newest College be College of Management Sciences (COLMAS) == Chancellors == Since ein inception, FUNAAB get four Chancellors: * Alhaji Kabir Umar, de Emir of Katagum insyd Bauchi State, dem appoint am insyd 1989, * Oba Adeyinka Oyekan, de Oba of Lagos (now late). He serve from 2001 to 2003, * Obi (Prof.) Joseph Chike Edozien, de Asagba of Asaba insyd Delta State, renowned den retired Professor of Medicine for de University of Ibadan, be de immediate past Chancellor. * De current Chancellor be Edidem Ekpo Okon Abasi-Otu (V), de Obong of Calabar, Natural Ruter den de grand Patriarch of de Efik-Ebutytu Kingdom, Rex Maximum Calabarees den de defender of de Christian Faith.<ref>admin (23 October 2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210603045554/https://unaab.edu.ng/2009/10/chancellor/ "List of Chancellors"]. ''FUNAAB''. Retrieved 28 May 2020.</ref> == Vice-Chancellors == * Na de foundational vice-chancellor be Professor Nurudeen Olorunimbe Adedipe, wey serve for two terms of four years each: 8 January 1988 to 31 December 1991 den 1 January 1992 to 31 December 1995,<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190909115820/http://unaab.edu.ng/2012/08/funaab-vice-chancellor-65242630/ "FUNAAB Vice - Chancellor"]. ''FUNAAB''. 13 August 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2020.</ref> * Na de second vice-chancellor be Professor Julius Amioba Okojie, wey act from 1 January 1996 till 2 September 1996, wen he cam turn substantive vice-chancellor den serve for one term of five-year, wey end for 31 August 2001,<ref>FUNAAB (1 August 2018). [https://unaab.edu.ng/2018/08/my-vice-chancellorship-was-divine-oon-i-never-had-the-ambition-prof-julius-okojie/ "My Vice-Chancellorship was divine (OON): I never had the ambition"]. ''FUNAAB''. Retrieved 28 May 2020.</ref> * Na de third vice-chancellor be Professor Israel Folorunso Adu, wey serve from 1 September 2001 to 31 August 2006.<ref name=":0" /> * Professor Ishola Adamson act as vice-chancellor from 1 September 2006 till 24 May 2007 * De fourth vice-chancellor, Professor Oluwafemi Olaiya Balogun, na dem appoint am from 24 May 2007 till 23 May 2012. * Na dem appoint Professor Olusola Bamidele Oyewole de fifth substantive vice-chancellor for de 70th Statutory Meeting of de varsity ein Governing Council for Friday, 20 April 2012. He assume office for 24 May 2012 – till 24 May 2017. * Na dem recommend den appoint Professor Ololade Ade Enikuomehin as de Acting Vice-Chancellor by de Senate of de varsity for ein special meeting for 24 May 2017 wey he serve for dat capacity till 31 October 2017.<ref>Sowole, Adeniyi (25 May 2017). [http://dailypost.ng/2017/05/25/funaab-appoints-ololade-enikuomehin-acting-vc/ "FUNAAB appoints professor Ololade Enikuomehin as acting VC with effect from 25 May 2017"]. Wale Odunsi. Daily Post news paper. Retrieved 18 March 2019.</ref> * De sixth substantive vice-chancellor den South Western Nigeria Coordinator (2016–2017), African Cassava Agronomy Initiative (ACAI), Professor Felix Kolawole Salako take over de baton of leadership for 1 November 2017 den end ein tenure insyd November 2022.<ref name=":0" /> * Na dem appoint Professor Olusola Kehinde as de Acting Vice-Chancellor by de Senate of de varsity for ein special meeting for 1 November 2022.<ref>[https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/ssouth-west/562817-nigerian-university-funaab-gets-acting-vc.html "Nigerian University, FUNAAB gets acting VC"].</ref><ref>[https://funaab.edu.ng/staff/kehinde-olusola-babatunde/ "KEHINDE Olusola Babatunde - FUNAAB"]. ''funaab.edu.ng''. Retrieved 20 December 2022.</ref> * Professor Olusola Babatunde KEHINDE, assume office as de 7th Substantive Vice-Chancellor of de Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB) for 1 April 2023, after he act as de Ag. Vice-Chancellor between 1 November 2022 den 31 March 2023<ref>[https://funaab.edu.ng/staff/kehinde-olusola-babatunde/ "KEHINDE Olusola Babatunde - FUNAAB"]. ''funaab.edu.ng''. 7 September 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.</ref><ref>[https://tribuneonlineng.com/funaab-governing-board-appoints-professor-kehinde-as-substantive-vc/ "FUNAAB governing board appoints Professor Kehinde as substantive VC"]. ''Tribune Online''. 16 March 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.</ref><ref>[https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/03/prof-kehinde-emerges-funaab-vice-chancellor/ "Prof Kehinde emerges FUNAAB Vice Chancellor"]. ''23 October 2023''. 8 March 2023.</ref> == Deputy Vice-Chancellors == * Professor G. M. Babatunde: 1 September 1994 * Professor Julius Okojie: 1 October 1994 to 31 December 1995 * Professor I. F. Adu: December 2000 (2 terms) * Professor T.O. Tayo: 7 December 2000 to 6 December 2004 (2 terms) * Professor A.R.T. Solarin: 7 December 2004 to 6 December 2006. * Professor I.C. Eromosele, DVC (Academic): 14 September 2007 to 17 September 2009. * Professor O.J. Ariyo, DVC (Development): 14 September 2007 to 17 September 2009. * Professor C.F.I Onwuka, DVC (Academic): 18 September 2009 to 17 September 2011. * Professor S.T.O Lagoke, DVC (Development): 18 September 2009 to 17 September 2011. * Professor T.A. Arowolo, DVC (Academic): 18 September 2011 to December 2013. * Professor F. K. Salako, DVC (Development): 18 September 2011 to 6 January 2016 (2 terms). * Professor M. A. Waheed, DVC (Academic): 1 January 2014 to 6 January 2016. * Professor (Mrs.) C.O. Eromosele, DVC (Academic): 7 January 2016 till 7 January 2018 * Professor O.A. Enikuomehin, DVC (Development): 7 January 2016 till 23 May 2017 * Professor (Mrs.) Morenike Dipeolu, DVC (Academic): 8 January 2018 to 7 January 2020<ref>Sowole, Adeniyi (21 May 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20201127010955/https://unaab.edu.ng/2018/05/professor-morenike-dipeolu-appointed-dvc-academic/ "Professor Morenike Dipeolu Appointed DVC Academic"]. Olusegun Adeosun. FUNAAB News. Retrieved 18 March 2018.</ref> * Professor (Mrs.) Bolanle Akeredolu-Ale DVC (Academic): 8 January 2020 till date * Professor L.O. Sanni, DVC (Development): 7 November 2017 to 6 November 2019.<ref>Sowole, Adeniyi (13 November 2017). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190620165114/http://armourradio.slidenafrica.org/congratulations-to-the-new-dvc-d-of-funaab/ "Congratulation to the new DVC-D of FUNAAB"]. Armour Radio. Armour Radio. Retrieved 18 March 2019.</ref> * Professor Clement Adeofun (Development): 7 November 2019 till date.<ref>FUNAAB (3 December 2019). [https://web.archive.org/web/20200926110410/https://unaab.edu.ng/2019/12/adeofun-becomes-dvc-development-works-health-services-get-new-directors/ "Adeofun Becomes DVC (Development) .. Works, Health Services Get New"]. ''FUNAAB''. Retrieved 31 January 2020.</ref> * Prof. IKEOBI Christian Obiora Ndubuisi (Academic) * Prof. ADEBAYO Kolawole (Development) While na de first five be de Deputy Vice-Chancellors per wey during dema respective tenures, dem appoint Professors Eromosele den Ariyo simultaneously as de first set of two Deputy Vice-Chancellors give de varsity, initiative of de then vice-chancellor, Professor O.O. Balogun.<ref>admin (13 August 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190909115820/http://unaab.edu.ng/2012/08/funaab-vice-chancellor-65242630/ "FUNAAB Vice - Chancellor"]. ''FUNAAB''. Retrieved 28 May 2020.</ref> == Academic programmes == De varsity get 179 academic programmes wey dey make up of 45 undergraduate programmes, 135 graduate programmes wich dey include 22 Postgraduate diploma programmes, 57 Master's degree programmes den 56 Doctorate degree programmes. Varsity colleges be: {| class="wikitable" !College !Departments, programmes, centres, den institutes |- |'''COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (COLERM)'''<ref>[https://funaab.edu.ng/section/college-of-environmental-resources-management "COLERM"]. ''COLERM''. 16 December 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Aquaculture den Fisheries Management * Department of Geology * Department of Environmental Management den Toxicology * Department of Forestry den Wildlife Management * Department of Water Resources Management den Agrometeorology |- |'''COLLEGE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE DEN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION (COLANIM)'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020415/http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/animal-science-and-livestock-production "COLANIM"]. ''COLANIM''. Archived from [http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/animal-science-and-livestock-production the original] on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Animal Breeding den Genetics * Department of Animal Physiology * Department of Animal Production den Health * Department of Pasture den Range Management |- |'''COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT DEN RURAL DEVELOPMENT (COLAMRUD)'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020224/http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/agricultural-management-and-rural-development "COLAMRUD"]. ''COLAMRUD''. Archived from [http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/agricultural-management-and-rural-development the original] on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Agricultural Economics den Farm Management * Department of Agricultural Extension den Rural Development * Department of Agricultural Administration * Department of Communication den General Studies |- |'''COLLEGE OF PLANT SCIENCE DEN CROP PRODUCTION (COLPLANT)'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020045/http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/plant-science-and-crop-production "COPLANT"]. ''COPLANT''. Archived from [http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/plant-science-and-crop-production the original] on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Crop Protection * Department of Horticulture * Department of Plant Breeding den Seed Technology * Department of Plant Physiology den Crop Production * Department of Soil Science den Land Management |- |'''COLLEGE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES (COLBIOS)'''<ref>[http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/biological-sciences "COLBIOS"]. ''COLBIOS''. 14 November 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Biochemistry * Department of Microbiology * Department of Applied Zoology * Department of Applied Botany |- |'''COLLEGE OF FOOD SCIENCES DEN HUMAN ECOLOGY (COLFHEC)'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020318/http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/food-sciences-and-human-ecology- "COLFHEC"]. ''COLFHEC''. Archived from [http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/food-sciences-and-human-ecology- the original] on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Food Science den Technology * Department of Home Science den Management * Department of Nutrition den Dietetics * Department of Food service den Tourism |- |'''COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE (COLVET)''' | * Department of Veterinary Anatomy * Department of Veterinary Physiology & Pharmacology * Department of Veterinary Pathology * Department of Veterinary Microbiology & Parasitology * Department of Veterinary Medicine & Surgery * Department of Veterinary Public Health & Reproduction |- |'''COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (COLENG)'''<ref>[http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/engineering "COLENG"]. ''COLENG''. 5 November 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2017.</ref> | * Department of Agricultural Engineering * Department of Civil Engineering * Department of Electrical den Electronics Engineering * Department of Mechanical Engineering * Department of Mechatronics Engineering |- |'''COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES (COLPHYS)'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020038/http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/natural-sciences "COLPHYS"]. ''COLPHYS''. Archived from [http://unaab.edu.ng/index.php/colleges/natural-sciences the original] on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2017.</ref> | * Department of Chemistry * Department of Computer Science * Department of Mathematics * Department of Physics * Department of Statistics |- |'''INSTITUTES, CENTRES, DEN ACADEMIC ESTABLISHMENTS''' | * School of Postgraduate Studies * Distance Learning Institute * Institute for Continuing Education * Biotechnology Centre |} == Units, centres den oda facilities == * Agricultural Media Resources and Extension Center (AMREC) * Biotechnology Center * Institute For Human Resources Development (INHURD) * Leventis Memorial Center for Learning * ICT Resource Center (ICTREC) * The Health Center * Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research (IFSERAR) * Directorate of Environmental Management (DEM) * Directorate of University Farms (DUFARMS) * Directorate of Technologist and Technical Staff (DITTECS) * Directorate of Grant Management * Center for Innovation and Strategy in Learning and Teaching (CISLT) * Sport Center * SERVICOM * SIWES * FMENV/FUNAAB Center * Center for Community-Based Farming Scheme (COBFAS) * Center for Internationalization and Partnerships (CENIP) * Center for Entrepreneurial Studies (CENTS) * Center of Excellence in Agricultural Development and Sustainable Environment (CEADESE) * FUNAAB International School * FUNAAB Staff School * School of Arts * UNAAB Consult. * De Physical Planning Unit * De Academic Planning Unit * De Procurement Unit * De Public Relations * De Internal Audit * De Bursary Department * De Registry * Student Affairs Division * Works and Services * Office of Advancement * Distance Learning Programme * FUNAAB Micro-finance Bank * FUNAAB Radio * FUNAAB Zoo Park == Partnerships == De varsity get collaborative partnerships plus institutions den establishments, wey dey include: * International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan * National Seed Services (NSS), Ibadan * National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi * National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike * Agricultural and Rural Management Training Institute (ARMTI), Ilorin * National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS), Zaria * Farm Management Association of Nigeria (FAMAN) * Ogun State Agricultural Development Project (OGADEP), Abeokuta * Ministries of Agriculture and Water Resources of both Ogun and Lagos states * Federal Ministry of Environment * National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA) * Afe Babalola University, Ado – Ekiti (ABUAD) * National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) * Pan-African Striga Control Network (PASCON), [[Accra]] * West African Rice Development Agency (WARDA), [[Ivory Coast]] * Federal Institute of Industrial Research (FIIRO), Oshodi, Lagos * Nestle Foods Plc. == Notable alumni == Amongst de alumni of de Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta den oda institutions wey dey fall under dat banner be: * Lateef O. Sanni, First FUNAAB graduate make he cam turn professor den DVC.<ref>Sanni, Lateef (13 November 2017). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190620165114/http://armourradio.slidenafrica.org/congratulations-to-the-new-dvc-d-of-funaab/ "Congratulation to the New DVC-D of FUNAAB"]. Armour radio. Armour radio. Retrieved 20 June 2019.</ref> * Olayinka Ramota Karim, Nigerian Food Scientist den Vice Chancellor, Fountain University, Osogbo * Japheth J. Omojuwa, Social commentator den blogger * Oluseun Onigbinde, techpreneur * Kizz Daniel, musician * Nkem Owoh, Actor * Oseni Rufai, TV presenter == Oda varsity lectures == * 30th Anniversary Maiden Distinguished Lecture Series:- Professor Julius A. Okojie 25 April 2018'': A robust Regulatory system: An imperative quality assurance in Nigeria Universities''<ref>Okojie, Julius (25 July 2019). ''A robust regulatory system: An imperative for quality assurance in Nigerian Universities''. FUNAAB.</ref> * 2019 Matriculation commencement Lecture:- Professor Olusegun Ayodeji Osinowo 18 July 2019: ''Sailing to success''<ref>Osinowo, Olusegun Ayodeji (2019). ''Sailing to success''. University Library ('Nimbe Adedipe Library): FUNAAB. pp.&nbsp;12p. (pamphlet).</ref> * Valedictory Lecture:- Professor Olufunmilayo Ayoka Adebambo 27 March 2019:The days of small beginning<ref>Adebambo, Olufunmilayo Ayoka (2019). ''The days of small beginning''. Nimbe Adedipe Library: FUNAAB. p.&nbsp;111. ISBN&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9789785600612|9789785600612]]</bdi>.</ref> * Text of an invited talk:-professor Steve o. Afolami: ''A centre of excellence: its hilltops and valleys, victories and challenges and the way forward.''<ref>Afolami, Steve. O. (2019). ''A centre of excellence: its hilltops and valleys, victories and challenges and the way forward''. Nimbe Adedipe Library: FUNAAB. pp.&nbsp;8pages pamphlet.</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101221193349/http://unaab.edu.ng/ Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta] 21 December 2010 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080311174355/http://www.nuc.edu.ng/pages/universities.asp Nigerian Universities Commission] [[Category:Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta]] [[Category:Forestry education]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1988]] [[Category:Forestry insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:1988 establishments insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:Federal universities of Nigeria]] [[Category:Agricultural universities den colleges insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Abeokuta]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1988]] [[Category:Education insyd Abeokuta]] evjils02g41t0arxp7i3u5blvf029p0 0 7807 104354 97897 2026-06-21T19:06:19Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''2016 Summer Paralympics''' (Portuguese: ''Jogos Paralímpicos de Verão de 2016''), de 15th Summer Paralympic Games, na ebe major international multi-sport event give athletes plus disabilities govern by de International Paralympic Committee, dem hold insyd Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 7 to 18 September 2016.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-south-yorkshire-68492709 "Paralympic table tennis player 'amazed' at award win"]. 6 March 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1083388/2016-rio-de-janeiro "2016 Rio de Janeiro Paralympics"]. ''www.insidethegames.biz''. 12 August 2019. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</ref> De Games mark de first time a Latin American den South American city host de event, de second Southern Hemisphere city den nation, de first one be de [[2000 Summer Paralympics]] insyd Sydney, wey e sanso be de first time a Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country host de event.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympic_games/8282518.stm "Rio to stage 2016 Olympic Games"]. ''BBC News''. 2 October 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2009.</ref> Dese Games see de introduction of two fresh sports to de Paralympic program: canoeing den de paratriathlon. Na de lead-up to dese Paralympics be met plus financial shortcomings dem attribute to tepid sponsor interest den ticket sales, wich result insyd cuts to volunteer staffing den transport, de re-location of events den de partial deconstruction of de Deodoro venue cluster. However, ticket sales begin dey increase as de Games draw nearer, wey na dem sell over two million tickets for total—wey overtake Beijing 2008 as de second-most-attended Paralympic Games for record top. Na dem host refugee Paralympic team for de first time, dey feature two refugees from Iran den Syria respectively. For de fourth consecutive Summer Paralympics, China top de medal table, wey win 107 gold medals, follow by Great Britain den Ukraine, while Georgia, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Uzbekistan, den Vietnam win dema first ever Paralympic gold medals. For de first time insyd Paralympic history, den de first time insyd de Olympics anaa Paralympics since 1960, athlete—Iranian cyclist Bahman Golbarnezhad—die during competition. == Bidding process == As part of formal agreement between de International Paralympic Committee den de International Olympic Committee dem first establish insyd 2001, na de winner of de bid give de 2016 Summer Olympics sanso go be de host of 2016 Summer Paralympics.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/disability-sport/18143145 "Paralympics 2012: London to host 'first truly global Games'"]. BBC Sport. Retrieved 1 August 2012.</ref> Dey follow de third den final round of voting for de 121st IOC Session insyd Copenhagen for 2 October 2009, na dem award de right to host de 2016 Summer Olympics den Paralympics to Rio de Janeiro.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympic_games/8282518.stm "Rio to stage 2016 Olympic Games"]. BBC. 2 October 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2010.</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="width:auto; text-align:center;" | colspan="6" |2016 Summer Olympics bidding results |- style="background:#efefef;" |'''City''' |'''NOC/NPC''' | style="background: silver" |'''Round 1''' | style="background: silver" |'''Round 2''' | style="background: silver" |'''Round 3''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |Rio de Janeiro | style="text-align:left;" |Brazil |26 |'''46''' |'''66''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |Madrid | style="text-align:left;" |Spain |'''28''' |29 |32 |- | style="text-align:left;" |Tokyo | style="text-align:left;" |Japan |22 |20 |— |- | style="text-align:left;" |Chicago | style="text-align:left;" |USA |18 |— |— |} == Development den preparation == De 2007 Pan American Games den Parapan American Games insyd Rio de Janeiro mark de first time wey dem host de Pan Am Games den Parapan Am Games as parallel events insyd de same host city; Rio ein organization of de two events help provide de city plus experience make dem dey host multi-sport events, den Paralympic sporting events. Andrew Parsons, presido of de Brazilian Paralympic Committee, remark say na de organizing teams responsible for de Olympics den Paralympics dey maintain good relationship den "speaking the same language" for relation to dema organizational duties. Parsons praise how na well-organized de 2012 Summer Paralympics be, wey he feel say na ein team learn lessons from London wey dem fi be apply insyd Rio.<ref name=":0">Wilson, Bill (9 September 2012). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-19503475 "Rio up and running for 2016 Paralympic Games"]. ''BBC News''. Retrieved 12 September 2012.</ref> === Venues === [[File:Rio_de_Janeiro_bid_venues_for_the_2016_Summer_Olympics.svg|right|thumb|Map of Rio de Janeiro dey show de competition venues give de 2016 Summer Olympics.]] [[File:Press_conference_at_the_2016_Rio_Paralympics.jpg|right|thumb|Press conference for de 2016 Rio Paralympics plus Mario Andrada, Sir Philip Craven den Craig Spence]] [[File:Ottobock_at_the_Rio_Paralympic_Games_(2).jpg|right|thumb|Wheelchair repair. During de games Ottobock technicians repair 2,745 wheelchairs, 438 prosthetics den 178 orthotics give 1,162 athletes.<ref>[http://www.ottobock.com/en/paralympics/rio-2016/ "Rio 2016 Paralympic Games — Ottobock"]. Retrieved 9 October 2016.</ref> ]] [[File:Tênis_Paralimpico.jpg|right|thumb|De Tennis Arena during de Paralympics competitions.]] As na ebe common practice since de Olympics den Paralympics begin make dem formally share host cities, na dem share de Paralympics dema venues plus those of de 2016 Summer Olympics.<ref name=":0" /> Barra da Tijuca host chaw of de venues, plus de remainder locate insyd Copacabana Beach, Maracanã den Deodoro. Barra da Tijuca sanso house de athletes' village.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160809140140/https://www.rio2016.com/en/paralympics/venues "Venues"]. ''Rio 2016''. Archived from [https://www.rio2016.com/en/paralympics/venues the original] on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.</ref> ==== Barra cluster ==== * Carioca Arena 1 – Wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby * Carioca Arena 2 – Boccia * Carioca Arena 3 – Judo, wheelchair fencing * Future Arena – Goalball * Olympic Aquatics Stadium – Swimming * Olympic Tennis Centre – 5-a-side football, wheelchair tennis * Pontal Beach – Road cycling * Riocentro – Powerlifting, Sitting volleyball, table tennis * Rio Olympic Arena – Wheelchair basketball * Rio Olympic Velodrome – Track cycling ==== Deodoro cluster ==== * National Shooting Center – shooting * National Equestrian Center – equestrian * Deodoro Stadium – 7-a-side football ==== Maracanã cluster ==== * Maracanã Stadium – opening den closing ceremonies * Estádio Olímpico João Havelange – athletics (track den field) * Sambadrome Marquês de Sapucaí – archery ==== Copacabana cluster ==== * Fort Copacabana – Athletics, Triathlon den Road Cycling * Marina da Glória – sailing * Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas – canoeing den rowing === Medals === [[File:Medalhas_paralimpicas.jpg|right|thumb|Paralympic medals den de mascot Tom.]] Na dem unveil de medal design give de 2016 Olympics den Paralympics were for 14 June 2016; na de Casa da Moeda do Brasil produce dem. De bronze den silver medals contain 30% recycled materials, while na dem produce de gold medals dem use gold wey na dem mined den dem extract using means wey meet series of sustainability criteria, such as dem extract am widout de use of mercury. De obverse of de Paralympic medals dey feature de Paralympic emblem den inscription insyd braille, while each medal dey contain differing numbers of metal balls make e allow de visually impaired make dem audibly distinguish dema color by shaking dem. Dem be accompanied by wooden carrying box, den plush toy of Paralympic mascot Tom plus hair leaves wey dey match de medal's color.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/36534678 "Rio 2016: Olympic Games and Paralympic medal designs revealed"]. ''BBC Sport''. Retrieved 12 September 2016.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160921152502/https://www.rio2016.com/en/paralympics/news/rio-2016-reveals-innovative-medals-for-paralympic-games "Rio 2016 unveils innovative medals for Paralympic Games"]. Rio 2016 Organizing Committee. Archived from [https://www.rio2016.com/en/paralympics/news/rio-2016-reveals-innovative-medals-for-paralympic-games the original] on 21 September 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.</ref><ref>[https://www.olympic.org/news/innovative-medal-design-unveiled-for-rio-2016 "Innovative medal design unveiled for Rio 2016"]. IOC. Retrieved 12 August 2016.</ref><ref>Busbee, Jay (10 August 2016). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160810212332/https://sports.yahoo.com/news/rio-mystery-solved-why-dont-olympic-medal-winners-get-flowers-195907726.html "Rio mystery solved: Why don't Olympic medal winners get flowers?"]. ''Yahoo! Sports''. Retrieved 12 August 2016.</ref> === Ticketing === Na de initial financial shortcomings of de 2016 Paralympics be primarily attributed to slow ticket sales den poor public interest, despite de cheapest tickets dey cost roughly quarter per of those give de Olympics.<ref name=":1">[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/sep/03/rio-de-janeiro-paralympics-tickets-slashed "Rio chiefs fear Paralympics could fall flat as seats remain empty"]. ''The Guardian''. 3 September 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.</ref> During de Olympics, organizers state say na 12% per of original target of 3.3 million tickets dem sell.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/sport/disability-sport/37162868 "Rio Paralympics 2016: More sports, Russia banned and slow ticket sales"]. ''BBC Sport''. Retrieved 1 September 2016.</ref> By early September, na dem sell half per of de tickets to medal events.<ref name=":1" /> For 23 August 2016, Greg Nugent, wey he be head of marketing of de 2012 Summer Olympics den 2012 Summer Paralympics, begin campaign for Twitter top dem know as "#FillTheSeats", wey dey encourage users make dem donate money to supply local youth den people plus disabilities plus tickets to de Paralympics. Nugent begin de campaign after he notice de large number of empty seats for competition venues during de 2016 Summer Olympics. Dey follow endorsements of de campaign by prominent figures, such as British band Coldplay (wich perform de closing ceremony insyd 2012), e raise over US$15,000 by 30 August. For 31 August 2016, de IPC den de Rio 2016 Organizing Committee announce say e go officially back de #FillTheSeats campaign, den set fresh goal of $300,000—wich de IPC say dem fi use am make dem fund de distribution of 10,000 tickets, along plus chow den tranpo, give de opening ceremony to Brazilian scholars den disabled peoples.<ref>[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/olympics/coldplay-endorsement-boosts-filltheseats-paralympics-campaign/article31603174/ "Coldplay endorsement boosts #FillTheSeats Paralympics campaign"]. ''The Globe and Mail''. Retrieved 1 September 2016.</ref> As part of revised ticketing strategy, de organizers set fresh target of 2.4 million tickets,<ref name=":1" /> plus de cheapest tickets dey cost R$10 (US$3) each.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/sep/06/rio-2016-paralympics-ready-opening-ceremony "Paralympics ready for lift-off amid cautious optimism of further progress"]. ''The Guardian''. 6 September 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</ref> Ticketing director Donovan Ferreti tell ''The Guardian'' say "last-minute" demand for tickets begin dey develop insyd de final days before de opening ceremony. He explain say na de tickets be "really affordable" den "cheaper than going to see a movie", wey go allow spectators make dem "have a great time with high-performance competition and have a great day out in the Olympic Park."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/sep/10/rio-2016-paralympic-games-ticket-sales-rise "Rio 2016 is the second-most attended Paralympic Games in history"]. ''The Guardian''. 10 September 2016. Retrieved 13 September 2016.</ref> De low cost of tickets help make e attract attendees to de Paralympics—especially families, while athletes praise de large den energetic crowds wey result.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/inexpensive-tickets-make-for-family-friendly-crowds-at-rio-s-paralympics-1.3758995 "Inexpensive tickets make for family-friendly crowds at Rio's Paralympics"]. ''CBC News''. Retrieved 16 September 2016.</ref><ref>[http://news.nationalpost.com/sports/rio-2016/rios-paralympics-seemingly-imperiled-before-they-began-have-shown-dazzling-signs-of-life-instead "Rio's Paralympics—seemingly imperiled before they began—have shown dazzling signs of life instead"]. ''National Post''. Retrieved 13 September 2016.</ref> For de third day of de Games, de IPC announce say at least dem sell 1.8 million tickets—dey surpass de 1.7 million of de 2008 Summer Paralympics insyd Beijing as de second-largest Paralympics in terms of ticket sales.<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/news/rio-2016-paralympic-ticket-sales-exceed-18-million "Rio 2016 Paralympic ticket sales exceed 1.8 million"]. IPC. Retrieved 10 September 2016.</ref> De next day, Barra Olympic Park get total attendance of 167,675, wey dey mark ein largest overall attendance across single day of competition during either de Olympics anaa Paralympics (de Olympics per reach peak of around 157,000).<ref name=":2" /> For 14 September, de IPC announce say sales exceed 2 million.<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/news/paralympics-ticket-sales-exceed-two-million "Paralympics ticket sales exceed two million"]. IPC. Retrieved 18 September 2016.</ref> == Torch relay == De Paralympic torch relay begin plus five individual flames dem relay to city insyd each of de five regions of Brazil. Dese flames, as well as sixth flame dem light insyd Stoke Mandeville, Great Britain, na dem unite an make e form single Paralympic flame, wich na dem relay thru Rio for 6 den 7 September 2016 en route to ein lighting for de Maracanã during de opening ceremony.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160809144048/https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/rio-2016-reveals-first-details-of-paralympic-torch-relay-as-part-of-500-days-to-games-celebrations "Rio 2016 reveals first details of Paralympic Torch Relay as part of 500 days to Games celebrations"]. Rio Organizing Committee. 27 April 2015. Archived from [https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/rio-2016-reveals-first-details-of-paralympic-torch-relay-as-part-of-500-days-to-games-celebrations the original] on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2016.</ref> === Route === == De Games == === Opening ceremony === === '''Participating nations''' === {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !Participating National Paralympic Committees |- | * [[Afghanistan]] (1) * [[Algeria]] (60) * [[Angola]] (4) * [[Argentina]] (84) * [[Armenia]] (2) * Aruba (1) * [[Australia]] (177) * Austria (27) * [[Azerbaijan]] (25) * Bahrain (2) * Belarus (20) * Belgium (29) * [[Benin]] (1) * Bermuda (2) * Bosnia and Herzegovina (14) * [[Botswana]] (1) * [[Brazil]] (285) * [[Bulgaria]] (7) * [[Burkina Faso]] (1) * [[Burundi]] (1) * Cambodia (1) * [[Cameroon]] (1) * [[Canada]] (153) * [[Cape Verde]] (2) * [[Central African Republic]] (1) * [[Chile]] (15) * [[China]] (308) * Colombia (39) * [[Comoros]] (1) * [[Republic of the Congo]] (1) * Costa Rica (3) * Croatia (19) * Cuba (22) * Cyprus (2) * Czech Republic (37) * Denmark (21) * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (2) * Dominican Republic (2) * Ecuador (5) * [[Egypt]] (45) * El Salvador (1) * Estonia (6) * [[Ethiopia]] (5) * Faroe Islands (1) * Fiji (2) * [[Finland]] (26) * [[France]] (123) * [[Gabon]] (1) * [[The Gambia]] (1) * [[Georgia]] (5) * [[Germany]] (155) * [[Ghana]] (3) * Great Britain (264) * [[Greece]] (60) * Guatemala (1) * [[Guinea]] (1) * [[Guinea-Bissau]] (1) * Haiti (1) * Honduras (2) * [[Hong Kong]] (24) * Hungary (43) * Iceland (5) * [[India]] (19) * [[Indonesia]] (9) * Individual Paralympic Athletes (2) * Iran (110) * Iraq (14) * Ireland (44) * Israel (33) * Italy (101) * [[Ivory Coast]] (5) * Jamaica (3) * Japan (132) * Jordan (10) * Kazakhstan (11) * [[Kenya]] (19) * Kuwait (6) * Kyrgyzstan (3) * Laos (1) * Latvia (11) * [[Lesotho]] (2) * [[Libya]] (3) * Lithuania (13) * Luxembourg (3) * Macau (1) * Macedonia (2) * [[Madagascar]] (1) * [[Malawi]] (1) * Malaysia (19) * [[Mali]] (2) * Malta (1) * [[Mauritius]] (2) * [[Mexico]] (71) * Moldova (3) * Mongolia (8) * Montenegro (2) * [[Morocco]] (26) * [[Mozambique]] (1) * Myanmar (2) * [[Namibia]] (10) * Nepal (2) * Netherlands (120) * New Zealand (31) * Nicaragua (3) * [[Niger]] (2) * [[Nigeria]] (23) * North Korea (2) * Norway (25) * Oman (2) * Pakistan (1) * Palestine (1) * Panama (2) * Papua New Guinea (2) * Peru (6) * Philippines (5) * Poland (90) * Portugal (37) * Puerto Rico (4) * Qatar (3) * Romania (12) * [[Rwanda]] (13) * Samoa (2) * São Tomé and Príncipe (1) * [[Saudi Arabia]] (3) * [[Senegal]] (2) * Serbia (16) * [[Seychelles]] (1) * [[Sierra Leone]] (1) * [[Singapore]] (13) * Slovakia (28) * Slovenia (8) * [[Somalia]] (1) * [[South Africa]] (44) * South Korea (82) * Spain (113) * Sri Lanka (9) * Suriname (1) * Sweden (58) * Switzerland (24) * Syria (2) * Chinese Taipei (13) * Tajikistan (1) * [[Tanzania]] (1) * Thailand (45) * East Timor (2) * [[Togo]] (1) * Tonga (2) * Trinidad and Tobago (3) * [[Tunisia]] (31) * [[Turkey]] (81) * Turkmenistan (2) * [[Uganda]] (1) * Ukraine (168) * United Arab Emirates (18) * [[United States]] (279) * Uruguay (4) * Uzbekistan (32) * Venezuela (23) * Vietnam (11) * Virgin Islands (1) * [[Zimbabwe]] (6) |} ==== Number of athletes by National Paralympic Committees (by highest to lowest) ==== {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !IPC !Country !Athletes |- |CHN |China |308 |- |BRA |Brazil |285 |- |USA |United States |279 |- |GBR |Great Britain |264 |- |RUS |Russia |322 |- |AUS |Australia |177 |- |UKR |Ukraine |168 |- |GER |Germany |155 |- |CAN |Canada |153 |- |JPN |Japan |132 |- |FRA |France |126 |- |NED |Netherlands |120 |- |ESP |Spain |113 |- |IRI |Iran |110 |- |ITA |Italy |101 |- |POL |Poland |90 |- |ARG |Argentina |84 |- |KOR |South Korea |82 |- |TUR |Turkey |81 |- |MEX |Mexico |71 |- |ALG |Algeria |60 |- |SWE |Sweden |58 |- |RSA |South Africa |44 |- |EGY |Egypt |45 |- |THA |Thailand |45 |- |IRL |Ireland |44 |- |HUN |Hungary |43 |- |COL |Colombia |39 |- |CZE |Czech Republic |37 |- |POR |Portugal |37 |- |ISR |Israel |33 |- |UZB |Uzbekistan |32 |- |NZL |New Zealand |31 |- |TUN |Tunisia |31 |- |BEL |Belgium |29 |- |SVK |Slovakia |28 |- |AUT |Austria |27 |- |FIN |Finland |26 |- |MAR |Morocco |26 |- |AZE |Azerbaijan |25 |- |NOR |Norway |25 |- |HKG |Hong Kong |24 |- |SUI |Switzerland |24 |- |VEN |Venezuela |23 |- |CUB |Cuba |22 |- |DEN |Denmark |21 |- |BLR |Belarus |20 |- |CRO |Croatia |19 |- |IND |India |19 |- |KEN |Kenya |19 |- |MAS |Malaysia |19 |- |UAE |United Arab Emirates |18 |- |SRB |Serbia |16 |- |CHI |Chile |15 |- |BIH |Bosnia and Herzegovina |14 |- |IRQ |Iraq |14 |- |LTU |Lithuania |13 |- |RWA |Rwanda |13 |- |SIN |Singapore |13 |- |TPE |Chinese Taipei |13 |- |ROU |Romania |12 |- |KAZ |Kazakhstan |11 |- |LAT |Latvia |11 |- |VIE |Vietnam |11 |- |JOR |Jordan |10 |- |NAM |Namibia |10 |- |SRI |Sri Lanka |9 |- |INA |Indonesia |9 |- |PUR |Puerto Rico |9 |- |MGL |Mongolia |8 |- |SLO |Slovenia |8 |- |BUL |Bulgaria |7 |- |EST |Estonia |6 |- |KUW |Kuwait |6 |- |PER |Peru |6 |- |ZIM |Zimbabwe |6 |- |ECU |Ecuador |5 |- |ETH |Ethiopia |5 |- |GEO |Georgia |5 |- |ISL |Iceland |5 |- |CIV |Ivory Coast |5 |- |PHI |Philippines |5 |- |ANG |Angola |4 |- |URU |Uruguay |4 |- |CRC |Costa Rica |3 |- |GHA |Ghana |3 |- |JAM |Jamaica |3 |- |KGZ |Kyrgyzstan |3 |- |LBA |Libya |3 |- |LUX |Luxembourg |3 |- |MDA |Moldova |3 |- |QAT |Qatar |3 |- |KSA |Saudi Arabia |3 |- |TRI |Trinidad and Tobago |3 |- |ARM |Armenia |2 |- |BRN |Bahrain |2 |- |BER |Bermuda |2 |- |CPV |Cape Verde |2 |- |CYP |Cyprus |2 |- |COD |Democratic Republic of the Congo |2 |- |DOM |Dominican Republic |2 |- |FIJ |Fiji |2 |- |HON |Honduras |2 |- |IPA |Individual Paralympic Athletes |2 |- |LES |Lesotho |2 |- |MLI |Mali |2 |- |MRI |Mauritius |2 |- |MNE |Montenegro |2 |- |MYA |Myanmar |2 |- |NEP |Nepal |2 |- |NCA |Nicaragua |2 |- |NIG |Niger |2 |- |NGE |Madagascar |2 |- |PRK |North Korea |2 |- |OMA |Oman |2 |- |PAN |Panama |2 |- |PNG |Papua New Guinea |2 |- |SAM |Samoa |2 |- |SEN |Senegal |2 |- |SYR |Syria |2 |- |TLS |East Timor |2 |- |TGA |Tonga |2 |- |TKM |Turkmenistan |2 |- |MKD |Macedonia |1 |- |AFG |Afghanistan |1 |- |ARU |Aruba |1 |- |BEN |Benin |1 |- |BOT |Botswana |1 |- |BUR |Burkina Faso |1 |- |BDI |Burundi |1 |- |CAM |Cambodia |1 |- |CMR |Cameroon |1 |- |CAF |Central African Republic |1 |- |CGO |Republic of the Congo |1 |- |ESA |El Salvador |1 |- |FRO |Faroe Islands |1 |- |GAB |Gabon |1 |- |GAM |The Gambia |1 |- |GUA |Guatemala |1 |- |GUI |Guinea |1 |- |GBS |Guinea-Bissau |1 |- |HAI |Haiti |1 |- |LAO |Laos |1 |- |MAC |Macau |1 |- |MAD |Madagascar |1 |- |MAW |Malawi |1 |- |MLT |Malta |1 |- |MOZ |Mozambique |1 |- |PAK |Pakistan |1 |- |PLE |Palestine |1 |- |STP |São Tomé and Príncipe |1 |- |SEY |Seychelles |1 |- |SLE |Sierra Leone |1 |- |SOM |Somalia |1 |- |SUR |Suriname |1 |- |TJK |Tajikistan |1 |- |TAN |Tanzania |1 |- |TOG |Togo |1 |- |UGA |Uganda |1 |- |ISV |Virgin Islands |1 |- | colspan="2;" |'''Total''' |'''4,342''' |} === Sports === Na dem contest events insyd 22 sports for de 2016 Summer Paralympics. Canoeing den paratriathlon make dema Paralympic debut insyd Rio. * Archery * Athletics * Boccia * Paracanoe * Cycling ** Road ** Track * Equestrian * Football 5-a-side * Football 7-a-side * Goalball * Judo * Paratriathlon * Powerlifting * Rowing * Sailing * Shooting * Swimming * Table tennis * Volleyball * Wheelchair basketball * Wheelchair fencing * Wheelchair rugby * Wheelchair tennis === '''Closing ceremony''' === == Calendar == ''All dates be Brasília Time (UTC–3)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%;position:relative;width:75%;" |-8 | style="width:2.5em; background:#0c3; text-align:center;"|'''OC'''||Opening ceremony | style="width:2.5em; background:#39f; text-align:center;"|●||Event competitions | style="width:2.5em; background:#fc0; text-align:center;"|'''1'''||Gold medal events | style="width:2.5em; background:#e33; text-align:center;"|'''CC'''||Closing ceremony |} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; line-height:1.25em;width:75%;" |- !style=width:10%; colspan=15|[[File:IPC logo (2004-2019).svg|65px]] |- !colspan="2" style="width:20%"|September !style="width:5%"|7<br/>Wed !style="width:5%"|8<br/>Thu !style="width:5%"|9<br/>Fri !style="width:5%"|10<br/>Sat !style="width:5%"|11<br/>Sun !style="width:5%"|12<br/>Mon !style="width:5%"|13<br/>Tue !style="width:5%"|14<br/>Wed !style="width:5%"|15<br/>Thu !style="width:5%"|16<br/>Fri !style="width:5%"|17<br/>Sat !style="width:5%"|18<br/>Sun !style="width:7%"|Events |- |colspan="2"| [[File:IPC logo black (2004-2019).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Ceremonies || style="background:#0c3; text-align:center;"|'''OC'''|| || || || || || || || || || || style="background:#e33; text-align:center;"|'''CC'''||— |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Archery pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Archery <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''9''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Athletics pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Athletics <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''10''' <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''20''' <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''16''' <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''19''' <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''14''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''19''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''14''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''19''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''16''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''25''' <!-- 18 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!-- T -->| '''177''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Boccia pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Boccia <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''7''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Paracanoe pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Paracanoe <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''6''' <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''6''' |- style="text-align:center;" | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|Cycling | style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Cycling (road) pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Road <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''8''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''8''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''8''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''9''' <!-- 18 -->| |rowspan=2|'''50''' |- style="text-align:center;" | style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Cycling (track) pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Track <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Equestrian_Dressage_pictogram_(Paralympics).svg|class=skin-invert|20x20px]]Equestrian (dressage) <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''6''' <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''11''' |- style="text-align:center;" | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|Football | style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Football 5-a-side pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] 5-a-side <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 14 -->| <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 18 -->| |rowspan=2|'''2''' |- style="text-align:center;" | style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Football 7-a-side pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] 7-a-side <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Goalball pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Goalball <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''2''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Judo pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Judo <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''13''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Powerlifting pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Powerlifting <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''20''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Rowing pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Rowing <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''4''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Sailing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sailing <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''3''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Shooting pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Shooting <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''12''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Sitting volleyball pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sitting volleyball <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''2''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Swimming pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Swimming <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''16''' <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''16''' <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''14''' <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''15''' <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''16''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''15''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''15''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''14''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''16''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''15''' <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''152''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Table tennis pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Table tennis <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''8''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''8''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''29''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Triathlon pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Paratriathlon <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| <!-- 15 -->| <!-- 16 -->| <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''6''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Wheelchair basketball pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Wheelchair basketball <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''2''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Wheelchair fencing pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Wheelchair fencing <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''14''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Wheelchair rugby pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Wheelchair rugby <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| <!-- 10 -->| <!-- 11 -->| <!-- 12 -->| <!-- 13 -->| <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 17 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 18 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- T -->| '''1''' |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Wheelchair tennis pictogram (Paralympics).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Wheelchair tennis <!-- 7 -->| <!-- 8 -->| <!-- 9 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 10 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 11 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 12 -->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!-- 13 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 14 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!-- 15 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 16 -->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!-- 17 -->| <!-- 18 -->| <!-- T -->| '''6''' |- !colspan="2"|Daily medal events !! 0 !! 38 !! 50 !! 48 !! 54 !! 48 !! 54 !! 50 !! 54 !! 65 !! 61 !! 6 !! rowspan=2|528 |- !colspan="2"|Cumulative total!! 0 !! 38 !! 88 !! 136 !! 190 !! 238 !! 292 !! 342 !! 396 !! 461 !! 522 !! 528 |- !colspan="2"|September !7<br/>Wed !8<br/>Thu !9<br/>Fri !10<br/>Sat !11<br/>Sun !12<br/>Mon !13<br/>Tue !14<br/>Wed !15<br/>Thu !16<br/>Fri !17<br/>Sat !18<br/>Sun !Events |} == Medal table ==  *   Host nation (Brazil) {| class="wikitable sortable" |+2016 Summer Paralympics medal table !Rank !NPC !Gold !Silver !Bronze !Total |- |1 !China (CHN) |107 |81 |51 |239 |- |2 !Great Britain (GBR) |64 |39 |44 |147 |- |3 !Ukraine (UKR) |41 |37 |39 |117 |- |4 !United States (USA) |40 |44 |31 |115 |- |5 !Australia (AUS) |22 |30 |29 |81 |- |6 !Germany (GER) |18 |25 |14 |57 |- |7 !Netherlands (NED) |17 |19 |26 |62 |- |8 !Brazil (BRA)* |14 |29 |29 |72 |- |9 !Italy (ITA) |10 |14 |15 |39 |- |10 !Poland (POL) |9 |18 |12 |39 |- |11–83 |Dey remain |187 |193 |249 |629 |- ! colspan="2" |Totals (83 entries) !529 !529 !539 !1,597 |} === Podium Sweeps === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Date !Sport !Event !NOC !Gold !Silver !Bronze |- |11 September |Swimming |Men's 200 metre individual medley SM10 |Ukraine |Denys Dubrov |Maksym Krypak |Dmytro Vanzenko |- |11 September |Paratriathlon |Women's PT2 |United States |Allysa Seely |Hailey Danisewicz |Melissa Stockwell |- |13 September |Athletics |Women's 1500 metres T54 |United States |Tatyana McFadden |Amanda McGrory |Chelsea McClammer |- |17 September |Archery |Women's individual compound W1 |Great Britain |Jessica Stretton |Jo Frith |Vicky Jenkins |} == References == <references /> == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey relate to '''''[[commons:2016_Summer_Paralympics|2016 Summer Paralympics]]'''''. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101106143348/http://www.rio2016.org/en/ Rio de Janeiro 2016 Official Homepage] * [http://www.paralympic.org/rio-2016 Rio de Janeiro 2016 from de International Paralympic Committee] * [https://www.paralympic.org/rio-2016/schedule-results/info-live-results/rio-2016/eng/zz/engzz_general-general-schedule.htm Results & Records] [[Category:2016 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Summer Paralympic Games by year]] [[Category:2016 insyd disability sport]] [[Category:2016 insyd multi-sport events]] [[Category:International sports competitions insyd Rio de Janeiro (city)]] [[Category:Multi-sport events insyd Brazil]] [[Category:2016 insyd Brazilian sport]] [[Category:September 2016 sports events insyd South America]] [[Category:2010s insyd Rio de Janeiro]] jmt8mf4xldx5a5m7w5d6yk5fbcabg85 0 23723 104355 85728 2026-06-21T20:30:55Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:WIKITONGUES-_Raphael_speaking_Twi.webm|right|thumb|A man wey dey speak Asante Twi]] '''Akan''' (/əˈkæn/),<ref>{{citation |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |title=The Linguistics Student's Handbook |year=2007 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-3160-5}}</ref> anaa '''Twi-Fante''',<ref>Florence Abena Dolphyne, 1988, ''The Akan (Twi-Asante) Language Its Sound Systems and Tonal Structure''</ref> be de most widely-spoken [[Languages wey dey Ghana|language of Ghana]], den de principal native language of de [[Akan people]], wey over much of de southern half of Ghana dey speak.<ref name="rutgers2">{{Cite web |title=Akan (Twi) at Rutgers |url=https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624214208/https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi |archive-date=2023-06-24 |access-date=2019-03-23 |website=www.amesall.rutgers.edu}}</ref> About 80% of Ghana ein population dey speak Akan as a first anaa second language,<ref name="rutgers2" /> den about 44% of Ghanaians be native speakers.<ref name="rutgers2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Akan Language |url=https://www.ohio.edu/cis/african/languages/akan |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=Center for International Studies |publisher=[[Ohio University]]}}</ref> Dem sanso dey speak de Bono dialect across de border insyd [[Ivory Coast]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Abron |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abr |access-date=14 February 2026 |website=Ethnologue}}</ref> Na dem develop three dialects as literary standards plus distinct orthographies: Asante den Akuapem, dem collectively know as Twi, den Fante.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arhin |first=Kwame |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R9gJAQAAIAAJ&q=twi |title=A Profile of Brong Kyempim: Essays on the Archaeology, History, Language and Politics of the Brong Peoples of Ghana |last2=Studies |first2=University of Ghana Institute of African |date=1979 |publisher=Afram |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Schacter|1968|pp=3–4}} Despite e be mutually intelligible,<ref name="rutgers2" /><ref name="brong">The Brong (Bono) dialect of Akan” by Florence Abena Dolphyne [[University of Ghana|University of Ghana, Legon]] 1979.</ref> dem be inaccessible insyd written form to speakers of de oda standards til de Akan Orthography Committee (AOC) ein development of a common Akan orthography insyd 1978, wey based mainly on Akuapem dialect.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harries |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmpyCgAAQBAJ |title=The Spiritual in the Secular: Missionaries and Knowledge about Africa |last2=Maxwell |first2=David |date=2012-07-20 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-1-4674-3585-7 |language=en}}</ref> As de first Akan variety to be used for Bible translation, Akuapem cam be de prestige dialect.<ref name="omniglot">{{Cite web |last=Ager |first=Simon |title=Omniglot |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/twi.htm |access-date=11 January 2015}}</ref> Plus de [[Atlantic slave trade]], na dem introduce Akan languages to de Caribbean den South America, notably insyd Suriname den Jamaica, wer e heavily influence de languages wey de Ndyuka den de Jamaican Maroons dey speak, dem sanso know as de Coromantee.<ref name="rutgers2" /> De cultures of de descendants of escaped slaves insyd de interior of Suriname den de [[Maroons]] insyd Jamaica still retain Akan influences, wey dey include de Akan naming practice of naming kiddies after de day of de week on wich dem be born, e.g. Akwasi/Kwasi give a boy anaa Akosua give a girl dem born on a Sunday. Insyd Jamaica den Suriname, de ''Anansi'' spider stories still be well-known.<ref name="rutgers2" /><ref name="brong" /> == Name == Originally, na de language be known by local names rada dan a single unifying term. Inland Akan groups refer to am as 'Twi' (/tʃwiː, twiː, tʃiː/;), while coastal Akan groups refer to am as 'Fante.<ref>M E Kropp Dakubu, 2006, 'Akan', in ''[[Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics]]''</ref> After independence, de national language commission adopt 'Akan', a name wey na e be used give all de languages wey de [[Akan people]] dey speak, wich include Twi-Fante den de Bia languages, as de name give Twi-Fante specifically per. Na dem rename de broader scope de Central Tano languages to avoid confusion. However, chaw sources still dey refer to de Central Tano languages as 'Akan'. == History == Na de largest Akan migration be to [[Ghana]] insyd successive waves between de 11th den 18th centuries. Smaller numbers migrate to de eastern part of [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]] den parts of [[Togo]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=18 July 2024 |title=Akan people /Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Akan#ref265882}}</ref> Within Ghana, dem expand from de north to occupy de southern forest den coastal areas during de 13th century. De Akans get a strong oral history tradition of dema past wey sanso be known in for symbolic artifacts of wood, metal den terracotta.<ref name="rutgers2" /> Dema cultural ideas be expressed insyd stories den proverbs as well as insyd designs such as symbols dem use in carvings den on clothes.<ref name="rutgers2" /> De rich Akan culture den history insyd [[Ghana]] be areas of research for chaw disciplines, such as folklore, literary studies, linguistics, anthropology, den history.<ref name="rutgers2" /> == Dialects == Akan be a dialect continuum wey be closely related to de Bia languages, de oda Central Tano languages wey de [[Akan people]] speak. De relationships of de major Akan dialects be as follows:{{sfn|Dolphyne|1986|p=4}}{{sfn|Dolphyne|1988|pp=54–6}} Brong den Wasa get limited mutual intelligibility plus each oda, den so be separate languages by dat standard. Neighboring Brong den Asante be mutually intelligible, though geographically more distant Brong den Fante be less so.{{sfn|Dolphyne|1986|p=9–12}} Indeed, 'a Fante-speaker go be right in looking on Bron [Bono] as a different language.'{{sfn|Dolphyne|1988|pp=54}} == Phonology == De Akan dialects dey contain extensive palatalization, vowel harmony, den tone terracing. {| class="wikitable IPA" style="text-align:center" |+Akan consonant phonemes{{Sfn|Osam|1994}}{{Sfn|Schacter|1968}} |- style="font-size: 90%;" ! colspan="2" | !Labial !Alveolar !Dorsal !Labialized |- ! rowspan="2" |Nasal !<small>plain</small> |/m/ | colspan="2" |/n/ |/nʷ/ |- !<small>geminated</small> | | colspan="2" |/nː/ |/nːʷ/ |- ! rowspan="2" |Stop !<small>voiceless</small> |/p/ |/t/ |/k/ |/kʷ/ |- !<small>voiced</small> |/b/ |/d/ |/ɡ/ |/ɡʷ/ |- ! colspan="2" |Fricative |/f/ |/s/ |/h/ |/hʷ/ |- ! colspan="2" |Trill | |/r/ | | |- ! colspan="2" |Approximant | |/l/ |/j/ |/w/ |} {| class="wikitable IPA" style="text-align:center" |+Allophones of Akan consonants{{Sfn|Osam|1994}}{{Sfn|Schacter|1968}} |- style="font-size: 90%;" ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" |Labial ! colspan="2" |Alveolar ! colspan="2" |Dorsal ! colspan="2" |Labialized |- !<small>Phoneme</small> !<small>Allophones</small> !<small>Phoneme</small> !<small>Allophones</small> !<small>Phoneme</small> !<small>Allophones</small> |- ! rowspan="2" |Nasal !<small>plain</small> |/m/ |/n/ | colspan="3" |[n~ŋ, ɲ, ɲĩ] |/nʷ/ |[ŋʷ, ɲᶣ] |- !<small>geminated</small> | |/nː/ | colspan="3" |[ŋː, ɲːĩ] |/nːʷ/ |[ɲːᶣ] |- ! rowspan="2" |Stop !<small>voiceless</small> |/p/ |/t/ |[t] |/k/ |[k, tɕ~cç] |/kʷ/ |[kʷ, tɕᶣ] |- !<small>voiced</small> |/b/ | colspan="2" |/d/ |/ɡ/ |[ɡ, dʑ~ɟʝ] |/ɡʷ/ |[ɡʷ, dʑᶣ] |- ! colspan="2" |Fricative |/f/ | colspan="2" |/s/ |/h/ |[h, ɕ] |/hʷ/ |[hʷ, ɕᶣ] |- ! colspan="2" |Trill | |/r/ |[ɾ, r, ɽ] | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Approximant | | colspan="2" |/l/ | colspan="2" |/j/ |/w/ |[w, ɥ] |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Akan consonant orthography |- style="font-size: 90%;" ! colspan="2" | !Labial !Alveolar !Dorsal !Labialized |- ! rowspan="2" |Nasal !<small>plain</small> |⟨m⟩ | colspan="2" |⟨n, ny, ngi⟩ |⟨nw, nu⟩ |- !<small>geminated</small> | | colspan="2" |⟨ng, nyi, nnyi⟩ |⟨nnw⟩ |- ! rowspan="2" |Stop !<small>voiceless</small> |⟨p⟩ |⟨t, ti⟩ |⟨k, ky⟩ |⟨kw, twi⟩ |- !<small>voiced</small> |⟨b⟩ |⟨d⟩ |⟨g, dw, gy⟩ |⟨gu, dwi⟩ |- ! colspan="2" |Fricative |⟨f⟩ |⟨s⟩ |⟨h, hy⟩ |⟨hu, hwi⟩ |- ! colspan="2" |Trill | |⟨r⟩ | | |- ! colspan="2" |Approximant | |⟨l⟩ |⟨y⟩ |⟨w, wi⟩ |} === Vowels === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+Akan vowel phonemes ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" |Front ! colspan="2" |Central ! colspan="2" |Back |- !<small>-RTR</small> !<small>+RTR</small> !<small>-RTR</small> !<small>+RTR</small> !<small>-RTR</small> !<small>+RTR</small> |- !Close |/i/ |/i̙/ | | |/u/ |/u̙/ |- !Mid |/e/ |/e̙/ | | |/o/ |/o̙/ |- !Open | | |/a/ |/a̙/ | | |} {| class="wikitable" !Orthog. !-RTR !+RTR |- |i |/i/ [i] | |- |e |/e/ [e] |/i̙/ [ɪ~e] |- |ɛ | |/e̙/ [ɛ] |- |a |/a/ [æ~ɐ~ə] |/a̙/ [a] |- |ɔ | |/o̙/ [ɔ] |- |o |/o/ [o] |/u̙/ [ʊ~o] |- |u |/u/ [u] | |} == Orthography == {| class="wikitable" !Uppercase |A |B |D |E |Ɛ |F |G |H |I |K |L |M |N |O |Ɔ |P |R |S |T |U |W |Y |- !Lowercase |a |b |d |e |ɛ |f |g |h |i |k |l |m |n |o |ɔ |p |r |s |t |u |w |y |} == Vocabulary == === Common phrases === {| class="wikitable" !English !Akan |- |Welcome |''Akwaaba'' |- |Yes |''Aane'' (Asante)<br />''Nyew'' (Fante)<br />''Yiw'' (Akuapem) |- |Okay/Alright |''Yoo'' |- |No/Nope |''Oho''/''Anhã'' (Fante)<br />''Daabi''(Asante) |- |Good night |''Da yie'' (Asante)<br />literally "sleep well" |- |I'm going to sleep |''Me rekɔ da'' (Fante) |- |How's it going?/How are you? |''Ɛte sɛn?'' (Asante)<br />e sanso fi be used insyd de non-literal sense as "hello" |- |Thank you |''Medaase'' |- |Please/Excuse me/I beg your pardon |''Mepa wo kyɛw'' |- |Song(s)/Music |''Ndwom'' (Fante)<br />''Nnwom'' (Asante) |- |What is your name? |''Wo din de sɛn?''/''Yɛfrɛ wo sɛn?'' (Asante)<br />''Wo dzin dze dεn?'' (Fante) |- |My name is.../I'm called... |''Me dzin dze...'' /''Wɔfrɛ me...'' (Fante) |- |How old is he/she? |''Woedzi mfe ahen?'' (Fante) |- |How old are you? |''Edzi mfe ahen'' (Fante) |- |Where is it? |''Ɔwɔ hen?'' |- |I am going/I am taking my leave |''Me rekɔ'' |- |Good |Mbo (Fante)<br />''Mmo''code (Asante) |- |Leave |''Jo'' (Fante)<br />''Kɔ'' (Asante) |- |Well done |''Ayɛ adze'' (Fante) |- |Stop |''Gyae'' |- |Sleep |''Da'' |- |Come |''Bra'' |- |Come here |''Bra ha'' |- |Come and eat |''Bɛ didi'' |} === Place names === {| class="wikitable" !English !Akan |- |Home |''Fie'' |- |School |''Sukuu'' |- |Church |''Asɔre'' |- |Market |''Dwaaso'' |- |University/Tertiary institution |''Sukuupon'' |- |Hospital |''Ayaresabea'' |} == System of given names == {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" scope="col" |Day ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Male name ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Female name |- !English !Akan |- |Monday |Dwoada |Kwadwo, Kojo |Adwoa |- |Tuesday |Benada |Kwabena, Kobina |Abena |- |Wednesday |Wukuada |Kweku, Kwaku |Akua |- |Thursday |Yawoada |Yaw, Kwaw |Yaa |- |Friday |Fiada |Kofi |Afia/Afua |- |Saturday |Memeneda |Kwame |Ama |- |Sunday |Kwasiada |Akwasi, Kwasi, Kwesi |Asi, Akosua, Esi |} == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{Cite journal |last=Dolphyne |first=Florence Abena |author-link=Florence Dolphyne |date=January 1986 |title=The languages of the Akan peoples |url=https://n2t.net/ark:/85335/m5dz0640k |journal=Research Review |language=English |publisher=University of Ghana. Institute of African Studies |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |issn=0855-4412}} * {{Cite book |last=Dolphyne |first=F. A. |title=The Languages of Ghana |publisher=Kegan Paul International for the International African Institute |year=1988 |isbn=978-0710302106 |editor-last=Kropp Dakubu |editor-first=Mary Esther |location=London |chapter=The Volta–Comoé Languages}} * {{Cite journal |last=Obeng |first=Samuel Gyasi |author-link=Samuel Obeng (linguist) |year=2000 |title=Vowel harmony and tone in Akan toponyms |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iuswrrest/api/core/bitstreams/e54bcfd0-5f33-4460-8c2a-4303b23e6c7c/content |journal=Studies in the Linguistic Sciences |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=173–183}} * {{Cite book |last=Osam |first=Emmanuel Kweku Ahen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCicIgAACAAJ |title=Aspects of Akan Grammar: A Functional Perspective |publisher=University of Oregon |year=1994 |location=Eugene, OR |type=PhD thesis}} * {{Cite book |last=Schacter |first=Paul |title=A Phonology of Akan: Akuapem, Asante, Fante |publisher=University of California Press |year=1968 |location=Los Angeles}} == Read further == * {{Cite book |last=Cleland |first=Esi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvmHSbsNWW4C |title=Modern Akan: A concise introduction to the Akuapem, Fanti and Twi language |last2=Gyang |first2=Kofi Oteng |last3=Imbeah |first3=Nana Kodwo (Jojoo) |last4=Imbeah |first4=Paa Kwesi |publisher=Kasahorow |year=2005 |isbn=978-9988-0-376-7-3 |series=Kasahorow Language Guides |location=Accra}} * {{Cite book |last=Dolphyne |first=Florence Abena |title=The Akan (Twi-Fante) Language: Its Sound Systems and Tonal Structure |publisher=Ghana Universities Press |year=1988 |isbn=9964-3-0159-6 |location=Accra |ref=-}} * {{Cite book |last=Dolphyne |first=F. A. |title=A Comprehensive Course in Twi (Asante) for the Non-Twi Learner |publisher=Ghana University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9964-3-0245-2 |location=Accra}} * {{Cite book |last=Nketia |first=William |title=Twi für Ghana: Wort für Wort |publisher=Reise Know-How Verlag |year=2004 |isbn=3-89416-346-1 |location=Bielefeld}} * {{Cite book |last=Obeng |first=Samuel Gyasi |title=African anthroponymy: An ethnopragmatic and norphophonological study of personal names in Akan and some African societies |publisher=LINCOM Europa |year=2001 |isbn=3-89586-431-5 |series=LINCOM studies in anthropology |volume=08 |location=München}} * {{Cite book |last=Redden |first=J. E. |title=Twi Basic Course |last2=Owusu |first2=N. |publisher=Foreign Service Institute |year=1963 |series=Foreign Service Institute basic course series |hdl=2027/mdp.39015005280261}} Reprint: {{Cite book |last=Redden |first=J. E. |title=Twi basic course |last2=Owusu |first2=N. |publisher=Hippocrene |year=1995 |isbn=0-7818-0394-2 |display-authors=0}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q28026|c=Category:Akan language|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Twi phrasebook|Twi|a phrasebook|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=|Akan|species=no}} * [[iarchive:englishtshiasant00evaniala|English-Tshi (Asante) : a dictionary = Enyiresi-Twi nsem-asekyere-nhõma (1909)]], Evangelische Missionsgesellschaft in Basel * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080602221106/http://www.abibitumikasa.com/forums/akan-language-resources/ Akan Language Resources] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110429215146/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Akan.aspx Journal of West African Languages: Akan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150510202835/http://ak.kasahorow.org/app/d My First Akan Dictionary] Online Akan (Twi, Fanti) Dictionary * [https://www.twitter.com/nkyea Twi Word of the Day and Articles] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100806111145/http://www.abibitumikasa.com/forums/akan-twi-language-resources/ Akan Language Resources] * [http://www.bible.is/AK1BSG/Matt/1/N/ The Bible in Twi] * [http://www.alislam.org/quran/Holy-Quran-Asante.pdf The Quran in Twi Language] * [http://love.poem.free.fr/translation-africa/twi-poem.htm Poem translated into Twi] * [http://www.vibeghana.com Watch Twi Music Videos] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090923020454/http://www.bahai-site.org/writings/african/akanasante.html Prayer in Asante used by Ghanaians of the Baha'i Faith] * [https://github.com/laberba/open-twi Open Twi Project], a project to bring Asante to software. * [https://www.jw.org/aha/ Literature and articles in Ahanta] Literature and articles in Ahanta dialect. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Akan language| ]] [[Category:Central Tano languages]] [[Category:Languages wey dey Ghana]] [[Category:Akan people]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] dg5k8pmuidx7hfhlmkzmq0dkq0kdi5d 0 24416 104340 93922 2026-06-21T12:38:55Z Kalender Yılmaz 6542 /* References */ ölü link düzeltimi yapıldı. Doğru bir kaynak gösterildi. 104340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ali Hosseini Khamenei''' (19 April 1939 – 28 February 2026) be an Iranian cleric den politician wey serve as de supreme leader of Iran since 1989, de second person to hold de position. He previously serve as de presido of Iran from 1981 to 1989. Ein tenure as supreme leader, wey dey span 36 years, make am de longest-serving head of state insyd de Middle East den de longest-serving Iranian leader since Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Born into de Khamenei family, he study at a hawza insyd ein hometown, later settling insyd Qom insyd 1958, wer he attend de classes of Ruhollah Khomeini. Khamenei cam be involved in opposition to Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, de shah of Iran, wey na dem arrest am six times before dem exiled am for three years by de Shah ein regime. Khamenei be a mainstream figure insyd de 1978–1979 Iranian Revolution, den upon ein success, he hold chaw posts insyd de newly established Islamic Republic of Iran. Insyd de aftermath of de revolution, na he be de target of an attempted assassination wey paralyse ein right arm. Der be continued assassination threats against Khamenei by Israel. Khamenei serve as de third presido of Iran from 1981 to 1989 during de Iran–Iraq War, wen na he sanso develop close ties to de Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). After de death of Khomeini insyd 1989, dem elect Khamenei supreme leader by de Assembly of Experts. As opposed to ein predecessor, wey hold de position of Grand Ayatollah, na Khamenei be a middle ranking cleric per, wey he no even be an Ayatollah before ein appointment. He achieve de position thru de employment of state media, patronage networks, den de security apparatus. As supreme leader, Khamenei support Iran ein nuclear program for civilian use while he dey issue a fatwa wey dey forbid de production of weapons of mass destruction. Khamenei favour economic privatization of state-owned industries den, plus oil den gas reserves, he transform Iran into an "energy superpower". Na ein foreign policy center on Shia Islamism den dey export de Iranian Revolution. Khamenei play a pivotal role insyd de development of de IRGC, wey transform am into a primary tool for domestic control den regional influence.<ref name="Britannica2">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Khamenei "Ali Khamenei"], (2024) [2001], ''[https://www.beyruni.com/ali-hamaney-kokeni-nedir/ Biruni.com]''.</ref> Under Khamenei, Iran support de "Axis of Resistance" coalition insyd de Syrian civil war, War in Iraq, Yemeni civil war den de Gaza war, as well as Russia during de Russo-Ukrainian war. A staunch critic of Israel den of Zionism, Khamenei support de Palestinians insyd de Israeli–Palestinian conflict; ein rhetoric include calls for Israel ein destruction den antisemitic tropes. Under Khamenei, Iran be involved insyd proxy wars plus Israel den Saudi Arabia; insyd 2025 den 2026, tensions plus Israel den de United States escalate to a 12-day armed conflict den ongoing strikes. Dem identify am as a pragmatic hardliner, Khamenei sideline leftist factions, moderate clerics, den political dissidents, while occasionally dey ease restrictions wen de regime ein stability anaa legitimacy be threatened. Ein leadership be closely associate plus de expansion of state militarization den de consolidation of power within de office of de Supreme Leader.<ref name="Britannica2" /> Khamenei sanso face chaw protests, wey dey include de 1999 Iranian student protests, de 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, de 2011–2012 Iranian protests, de 2017–2018 Iranian protests, de 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes den protests, de 2019–2020 Iranian protests, de Mahsa Amini protests, den de 2025–2026 Iranian protests. Na dem put journalists, bloggers den oda individuals on trial insyd Iran for de charges of insulting Supreme Leader Khamenei, often in conjunction plus blasphemy charges. Dema sentences include lashing den jail time; sam of dem die insyd custody. He sanso be known by de title Ayatollah wey he be considered one of de leading Shia Muslim marja' insyd de world. Khamenei ein critics view am as a repressive despot responsible for repression, mass murders den oda acts of injustice. == Personal life == === Family === Khamenei marry Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh, plus whom he get six kiddies; four sons (Mostafa, Mojtaba, Masoud, den Meysam) den two daughters (Boshra and Hoda).<ref>{{cite web |title=آشنایی با فرزندان مقام معظم رهبری |url=http://www.seratnews.ir/fa/news/35284/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |website=seratnews.ir |access-date=27 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128205002/http://www.seratnews.ir/fa/news/35284/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |archive-date=28 January 2015}}</ref> One of ein sons, Mojtaba, marry a daughter of Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel.<ref name="usip">{{cite web |title=Iran's Political Elite |url=http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/irans-political-elite |publisher=[[United States Institute of Peace]] |access-date=30 July 2013 |author=Mehrzad Boroujerdi |author2=Kourosh Rahimkhani |date=11 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823181417/http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/irans-political-elite |archive-date=23 August 2013}}</ref> Ein eldest son, Mostafa, marry a daughter of Azizollah Khoshvaght.<ref>{{cite news |title=آشنایی با فرزندان مقام معظم رهبری |url=https://www.mashreghnews.ir/news/69401/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |access-date=18 November 2019 |work=[[Mashregh News]] |date=30 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414051726/https://www.mashreghnews.ir/news/69401/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |archive-date=14 April 2017 |language=fa |url-status=dead |trans-title=Knowing the sons of Iran's supreme leader}}</ref> Anoda son, Masoud, marry de daughter of Mohsen Kharazi.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240414225650/https://aghigh.ir/fa/news/30858/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D9%87%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87-%D9%BE%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%87%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B4 Seyyed Masoud Khamenei, beside his father-in-law (Seyyed Mohsen Kharazi) – Portrait], aghigh.ir, retrieved 23 November 2019</ref> He get three bros, wey dey include Mohammad Khamenei den Hadi Khamenei. One of ein four sistos, Badri Khamenei, wifey of dissident Ali Tehrani, flee into exile insyd de 1980s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Niece of Iran's supreme leader calls on other countries to cut ties with regime |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/27/niece-iran-supreme-leader-protests-farideh-moradkhani |access-date=30 November 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=27 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref> == Works == Sam of ein works dey include: * ''Four Main Books of Rijal<ref name="cgie2">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Velayati|first1=Ali Akbar|encyclopedia=The Great Islamic Encyclopedia|title=Ayatollah Ali Khamenei|url=https://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/publication/entryview/16337|access-date=3 April 2017|language=fa|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080923/http://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/publication/entryview/16337|archive-date=11 February 2017}}</ref>'' * ''An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran<ref name="cgie2" />'' * ''Honest Leader<ref name="cgie2" />'' * ''Discourse on Patience''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRsDHQAACAAJ |title=Discourse on Patience - Lectures of ... |date=1994 |access-date=19 June 2009 |last1=Khamenei |first1=Ali}}</ref> (translation by Sayyid Hussein Alamdar, available online)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/books/patiance.htm |title=Discourse on Patience |access-date=8 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000221/http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/books/patiance.htm |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> * ''Iqbal - Manifestation of the Islamic Spirit, Two Contemporary Muslim Views''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivogAAAACAAJ |title=Iqbal - Manifestation of the Islamic ... |isbn=978-1-871031-20-1 |date=1991 |last1=Khamenei |first1=Ali |last2=Shariati |first2=Ali |last3=Sharīʻatī |first3=ʻalī |publisher=ABC International}}</ref> ** ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20090618081641/http://www.khamenei.de/books/iqbal.htm Iqbal, the Poet-Philosopher of Islamic Resurgence]'' is one of the "Two Contemporary Muslim Views", the other one is Ali Shariati's. * ''Replies to Inquiries about the Practical Laws of Islam''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1vAMAQAACAAJ |title=Replies to Inquiries about the ... |isbn=978-964-472-000-0 |date=1997}}</ref> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000901/http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/books/ajvab.pdf PDF version]) * ''Lessons from the Nahjul-Balaghah''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOHKHAAACAAJ |title=Lessons from the Nahjul-Balaghah |date=1984 |last1=Khamenei |first1=Seyyed Ali}}</ref> * ''Human Rights in Islam'' * ''The Charter of Freedom''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=4458 |title=The Charter of Freedom &#124;&#124; Imam Reza (A.S.) Network |publisher=Imam Reza |access-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618191107/http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=4458 |archive-date=18 June 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khamenei.de/books/charterfree.htm |title=The Charter of Freedom |website=khamenei.de |access-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618091735/http://www.khamenei.de/books/charterfree.htm |archive-date=18 June 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.irib.ir/occasions/Rahbar/charter%20of%20freedom.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104051353/http://www.irib.ir/occasions/Rahbar/charter%20of%20freedom.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 January 2007 |title=Great Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei |access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> * ''Essence of Tawhid: Denial of Servitude but to God''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khamenei.de/books/tawhid.htm |title=Tawhid |date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235439/http://www.khamenei.de/books/tawhid.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Translations from Arabic: * Sayyid Qutb's ''Future in the Realm of Islam<ref name="cgie2" />''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharawi |first=Ahmad |date=2025-06-26 |title=The Muslim Brotherhood Pledges Support to Iran |url=https://www.fdd.org/analysis/policy_briefs/2025/06/26/the-muslim-brotherhood-pledges-support-to-iran/ |access-date=2026-02-26 |website=FDD |language=en}}</ref> Collections: * ''A 250 Years Old Person'' * ''Palestine'' == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|c=Category:Ali Khamenei|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|s=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|species=no}} === Official === * [https://www.leader.ir/ The Office of the Supreme Leader of Iran] === Photos === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181018084714/http://tarikhirani.ir/fa/news/3/bodyView/5184/0/%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1.%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8.%D8%AF%D8%B1.%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C.%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF.html Pictures in Iran-Iraq War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018084714/http://tarikhirani.ir/fa/news/3/bodyView/5184/0/%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1.%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8.%D8%AF%D8%B1.%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C.%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF.html |date=18 October 2018 }}, tarikhirani.ir * [http://english.khamenei.ir//index.php?option%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D781%26Itemid%3D4/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_mhasgallery%26Itemid%3D33 Ali Khamenei gallery in Khamenei's website] === Media === * {{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3018932.stm |title=Profile – Ayatollah Ali Khamenei |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=17 June 2009 |access-date=1 January 2010}} === Videos === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110204053450/http://farsi.khamenei.ir/video-index Video Archive of Ayatollah Khamenei] * [http://irannegah.com/Video.aspx?id=423 Ayatollah Khamenei in the city of Ardabil reading different poems in Azerbaijani language about Imam Hussein and events in Karbala.] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Khamenei, Ali}} [[Category:Ali Khamenei| ]] [[Category:1939 births]] [[Category:2026 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:20th-century Iranian translators]] [[Category:21st-century Shia Muslims]] [[Category:20th-century Iranian writers]] [[Category:21st-century Iranian writers]] [[Category:Anti-American sentiment insyd Iran]] [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] [[Category:Heads of state insyd Asia dem assassinate]] [[Category:Iranian people dem assassinate]] [[Category:People dem assassinate]] [[Category:Central Council of de Islamic Republican Party members]] [[Category:Combatant Clergy Association politicians]] [[Category:Commanders-in-chief of 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Gaza war]] [[Category:People of de Iran–Israel war]] [[Category:People of de Iranian Revolution]] [[Category:Persecution of Baháʼís]] [[Category:Politicide perpetrators]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 2026]] [[Category:Presidents of Iran]] [[Category:Qom Seminary alumni]] [[Category:Shia Islamists]] [[Category:Specially Designated Nationals den Blocked Persons List]] [[Category:Supreme leaders of Iran]] [[Category:Theocrats]] [[Category:2026 Wiki Dey Love Ramadan Contributions]] sw63nh6vyvq9zcg3lw2kdw1gipm36m5 104368 104340 2026-06-21T23:49:14Z DaSupremo 9 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Kalender Yılmaz|Kalender Yılmaz]] ([[User talk:Kalender Yılmaz|talk]]) to last revision by [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] 93922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ali Hosseini Khamenei''' (19 April 1939 – 28 February 2026) be an Iranian cleric den politician wey serve as de supreme leader of Iran since 1989, de second person to hold de position. He previously serve as de presido of Iran from 1981 to 1989. Ein tenure as supreme leader, wey dey span 36 years, make am de longest-serving head of state insyd de Middle East den de longest-serving Iranian leader since Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Born into de Khamenei family, he study at a hawza insyd ein hometown, later settling insyd Qom insyd 1958, wer he attend de classes of Ruhollah Khomeini. Khamenei cam be involved in opposition to Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, de shah of Iran, wey na dem arrest am six times before dem exiled am for three years by de Shah ein regime. Khamenei be a mainstream figure insyd de 1978–1979 Iranian Revolution, den upon ein success, he hold chaw posts insyd de newly established Islamic Republic of Iran. Insyd de aftermath of de revolution, na he be de target of an attempted assassination wey paralyse ein right arm. Der be continued assassination threats against Khamenei by Israel. Khamenei serve as de third presido of Iran from 1981 to 1989 during de Iran–Iraq War, wen na he sanso develop close ties to de Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). After de death of Khomeini insyd 1989, dem elect Khamenei supreme leader by de Assembly of Experts. As opposed to ein predecessor, wey hold de position of Grand Ayatollah, na Khamenei be a middle ranking cleric per, wey he no even be an Ayatollah before ein appointment. He achieve de position thru de employment of state media, patronage networks, den de security apparatus. As supreme leader, Khamenei support Iran ein nuclear program for civilian use while he dey issue a fatwa wey dey forbid de production of weapons of mass destruction. Khamenei favour economic privatization of state-owned industries den, plus oil den gas reserves, he transform Iran into an "energy superpower". Na ein foreign policy center on Shia Islamism den dey export de Iranian Revolution. Khamenei play a pivotal role insyd de development of de IRGC, wey transform am into a primary tool for domestic control den regional influence.<ref name="Britannica2">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Khamenei "Ali Khamenei"], (2024) [2001], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> Under Khamenei, Iran support de "Axis of Resistance" coalition insyd de Syrian civil war, War in Iraq, Yemeni civil war den de Gaza war, as well as Russia during de Russo-Ukrainian war. A staunch critic of Israel den of Zionism, Khamenei support de Palestinians insyd de Israeli–Palestinian conflict; ein rhetoric include calls for Israel ein destruction den antisemitic tropes. Under Khamenei, Iran be involved insyd proxy wars plus Israel den Saudi Arabia; insyd 2025 den 2026, tensions plus Israel den de United States escalate to a 12-day armed conflict den ongoing strikes. Dem identify am as a pragmatic hardliner, Khamenei sideline leftist factions, moderate clerics, den political dissidents, while occasionally dey ease restrictions wen de regime ein stability anaa legitimacy be threatened. Ein leadership be closely associate plus de expansion of state militarization den de consolidation of power within de office of de Supreme Leader.<ref name="Britannica2" /> Khamenei sanso face chaw protests, wey dey include de 1999 Iranian student protests, de 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, de 2011–2012 Iranian protests, de 2017–2018 Iranian protests, de 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes den protests, de 2019–2020 Iranian protests, de Mahsa Amini protests, den de 2025–2026 Iranian protests. Na dem put journalists, bloggers den oda individuals on trial insyd Iran for de charges of insulting Supreme Leader Khamenei, often in conjunction plus blasphemy charges. Dema sentences include lashing den jail time; sam of dem die insyd custody. He sanso be known by de title Ayatollah wey he be considered one of de leading Shia Muslim marja' insyd de world. Khamenei ein critics view am as a repressive despot responsible for repression, mass murders den oda acts of injustice. == Personal life == === Family === Khamenei marry Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh, plus whom he get six kiddies; four sons (Mostafa, Mojtaba, Masoud, den Meysam) den two daughters (Boshra and Hoda).<ref>{{cite web |title=آشنایی با فرزندان مقام معظم رهبری |url=http://www.seratnews.ir/fa/news/35284/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |website=seratnews.ir |access-date=27 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128205002/http://www.seratnews.ir/fa/news/35284/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |archive-date=28 January 2015}}</ref> One of ein sons, Mojtaba, marry a daughter of Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel.<ref name="usip">{{cite web |title=Iran's Political Elite |url=http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/irans-political-elite |publisher=[[United States Institute of Peace]] |access-date=30 July 2013 |author=Mehrzad Boroujerdi |author2=Kourosh Rahimkhani |date=11 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823181417/http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/irans-political-elite |archive-date=23 August 2013}}</ref> Ein eldest son, Mostafa, marry a daughter of Azizollah Khoshvaght.<ref>{{cite news |title=آشنایی با فرزندان مقام معظم رهبری |url=https://www.mashreghnews.ir/news/69401/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |access-date=18 November 2019 |work=[[Mashregh News]] |date=30 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414051726/https://www.mashreghnews.ir/news/69401/%D8%A2%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%A7-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C |archive-date=14 April 2017 |language=fa |url-status=dead |trans-title=Knowing the sons of Iran's supreme leader}}</ref> Anoda son, Masoud, marry de daughter of Mohsen Kharazi.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240414225650/https://aghigh.ir/fa/news/30858/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D9%87%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87-%D9%BE%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%87%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B4 Seyyed Masoud Khamenei, beside his father-in-law (Seyyed Mohsen Kharazi) – Portrait], aghigh.ir, retrieved 23 November 2019</ref> He get three bros, wey dey include Mohammad Khamenei den Hadi Khamenei. One of ein four sistos, Badri Khamenei, wifey of dissident Ali Tehrani, flee into exile insyd de 1980s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Niece of Iran's supreme leader calls on other countries to cut ties with regime |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/27/niece-iran-supreme-leader-protests-farideh-moradkhani |access-date=30 November 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=27 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref> == Works == Sam of ein works dey include: * ''Four Main Books of Rijal<ref name="cgie2">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Velayati|first1=Ali Akbar|encyclopedia=The Great Islamic Encyclopedia|title=Ayatollah Ali Khamenei|url=https://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/publication/entryview/16337|access-date=3 April 2017|language=fa|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080923/http://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/publication/entryview/16337|archive-date=11 February 2017}}</ref>'' * ''An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran<ref name="cgie2" />'' * ''Honest Leader<ref name="cgie2" />'' * ''Discourse on Patience''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRsDHQAACAAJ |title=Discourse on Patience - Lectures of ... |date=1994 |access-date=19 June 2009 |last1=Khamenei |first1=Ali}}</ref> (translation by Sayyid Hussein Alamdar, available online)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/books/patiance.htm |title=Discourse on Patience |access-date=8 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000221/http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/books/patiance.htm |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> * ''Iqbal - Manifestation of the Islamic Spirit, Two Contemporary Muslim Views''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivogAAAACAAJ |title=Iqbal - Manifestation of the Islamic ... |isbn=978-1-871031-20-1 |date=1991 |last1=Khamenei |first1=Ali |last2=Shariati |first2=Ali |last3=Sharīʻatī |first3=ʻalī |publisher=ABC International}}</ref> ** ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20090618081641/http://www.khamenei.de/books/iqbal.htm Iqbal, the Poet-Philosopher of Islamic Resurgence]'' is one of the "Two Contemporary Muslim Views", the other one is Ali Shariati's. * ''Replies to Inquiries about the Practical Laws of Islam''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1vAMAQAACAAJ |title=Replies to Inquiries about the ... |isbn=978-964-472-000-0 |date=1997}}</ref> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000901/http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/books/ajvab.pdf PDF version]) * ''Lessons from the Nahjul-Balaghah''<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOHKHAAACAAJ |title=Lessons from the Nahjul-Balaghah |date=1984 |last1=Khamenei |first1=Seyyed Ali}}</ref> * ''Human Rights in Islam'' * ''The Charter of Freedom''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=4458 |title=The Charter of Freedom &#124;&#124; Imam Reza (A.S.) Network |publisher=Imam Reza |access-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618191107/http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=4458 |archive-date=18 June 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khamenei.de/books/charterfree.htm |title=The Charter of Freedom |website=khamenei.de |access-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618091735/http://www.khamenei.de/books/charterfree.htm |archive-date=18 June 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.irib.ir/occasions/Rahbar/charter%20of%20freedom.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104051353/http://www.irib.ir/occasions/Rahbar/charter%20of%20freedom.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 January 2007 |title=Great Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei |access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> * ''Essence of Tawhid: Denial of Servitude but to God''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khamenei.de/books/tawhid.htm |title=Tawhid |date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235439/http://www.khamenei.de/books/tawhid.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Translations from Arabic: * Sayyid Qutb's ''Future in the Realm of Islam<ref name="cgie2" />''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharawi |first=Ahmad |date=2025-06-26 |title=The Muslim Brotherhood Pledges Support to Iran |url=https://www.fdd.org/analysis/policy_briefs/2025/06/26/the-muslim-brotherhood-pledges-support-to-iran/ |access-date=2026-02-26 |website=FDD |language=en}}</ref> Collections: * ''A 250 Years Old Person'' * ''Palestine'' == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|c=Category:Ali Khamenei|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|s=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|species=no}} === Official === * [https://www.leader.ir/ The Office of the Supreme Leader of Iran] === Photos === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181018084714/http://tarikhirani.ir/fa/news/3/bodyView/5184/0/%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1.%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8.%D8%AF%D8%B1.%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C.%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF.html Pictures in Iran-Iraq War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018084714/http://tarikhirani.ir/fa/news/3/bodyView/5184/0/%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%B1.%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8.%D8%AF%D8%B1.%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C.%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF.html |date=18 October 2018 }}, tarikhirani.ir * [http://english.khamenei.ir//index.php?option%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D781%26Itemid%3D4/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_mhasgallery%26Itemid%3D33 Ali Khamenei gallery in Khamenei's website] === Media === * {{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3018932.stm |title=Profile – Ayatollah Ali Khamenei |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=17 June 2009 |access-date=1 January 2010}} === Videos === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110204053450/http://farsi.khamenei.ir/video-index Video Archive of Ayatollah Khamenei] * [http://irannegah.com/Video.aspx?id=423 Ayatollah Khamenei in the city of Ardabil reading different poems in Azerbaijani language about Imam Hussein and events in Karbala.] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Khamenei, Ali}} [[Category:Ali Khamenei| ]] [[Category:1939 births]] [[Category:2026 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:20th-century Iranian translators]] [[Category:21st-century Shia Muslims]] [[Category:20th-century Iranian writers]] [[Category:21st-century Iranian writers]] [[Category:Anti-American sentiment insyd Iran]] [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] [[Category:Heads of state insyd Asia dem assassinate]] [[Category:Iranian people dem assassinate]] [[Category:People dem assassinate]] [[Category:Central Council of de Islamic Republican Party members]] [[Category:Combatant Clergy Association politicians]] [[Category:Commanders-in-chief of 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Gaza war]] [[Category:People of de Iran–Israel war]] [[Category:People of de Iranian Revolution]] [[Category:Persecution of Baháʼís]] [[Category:Politicide perpetrators]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 2026]] [[Category:Presidents of Iran]] [[Category:Qom Seminary alumni]] [[Category:Shia Islamists]] [[Category:Specially Designated Nationals den Blocked Persons List]] [[Category:Supreme leaders of Iran]] [[Category:Theocrats]] [[Category:2026 Wiki Dey Love Ramadan Contributions]] 82eq1zx7jcovhjutkjgvu1x5luvl5uo 0 27465 104348 101836 2026-06-21T14:20:59Z DaSupremo 9 Article contains Nigerian Pidgin words so I rewrote it in Ghanaian Pidgin 104348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Desalination''' be de artificial process by wich salt water (generally sea water) be converted to fresh water. More generally, desalination be de removal of salts den minerals from a substance.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/desalination "Desalination"] (definition), ''The American Heritage Science Dictionary'', via dictionary.com. Retrieved August 19, 2007.</ref> E be possible to desalinate saltwater, especially sea water, to produce water for human consumption anaa irrigation, wey dey produce brine as a by-product.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Panagopoulos|first1=Argyris|last2=Haralambous|first2=Katherine-Joanne|last3=Loizidou|first3=Maria|date=November 25, 2019|title=Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies – A review|journal=The Science of the Total Environment|volume=693|article-number=133545|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351|issn=1879-1026|pmid=31374511|bibcode=2019ScTEn.69333545P|s2cid=199387639}}</ref> Interest insyd desalination mostly dey focus on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along plus recycled wastewater, e be one of de few [[water resources]] independent of rainfall.<ref name="Fischetti2007">{{Cite journal |last=Fischetti |first=Mark |date=September 2007 |title=Fresh from the Sea |journal=Scientific American|volume=297 |pmid=17784633 |issue=3 |pages=118–119|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0907-118 |bibcode=2007SciAm.297c.118F}}</ref> As stress on de need for freshwater dey intensify globally, desalination cam be a key part of strategies for global water security. According to a 2019 review insyd ''Science of the Total Environment'', around 95 million cubic meters per day of desalinated water be produced worldwide, den de demand for desalinated water be expected to grow significantly to help close de global water supply gap. Secof ein energy consumption, desalinating sea water generally be more costly dan fresh water from surface water anaa [[groundwater]], water recycling den water conservation. However, dese alternatives no be always available den depletion of reserves be a critical problem worldwide.<ref name="EbrahimiNajafpourYousefiKebria2019">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.002 |title=Performance of microbial desalination cell for salt removal and energy generation using different catholyte solutions |journal=Desalination |volume=432 |page=1 |year=2019 |last1=Ebrahimi |first1=Atieh |last2=Najafpour |first2=Ghasem D |last3=Yousefi Kebria |first3=Daryoush }}</ref><ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=March 19, 2019 |access-date=August 27, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Elsaid |first1=Khaled |last2=Kamil |first2=Mohammed |last3=Sayed |first3=Enas Taha |last4=Abdelkareem |first4=Mohammad Ali |last5=Wilberforce |first5=Tabbi |last6=Olabi |first6=A. |title=Environmental impact of desalination technologies: A review |journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]] |date=2020 |volume=748 |article-number=141528 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141528|pmid=32818886 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.74841528E }}</ref> Desalination processes dey use either thermal methods (insyd de case of distillation) anaa membrane-based methods (e.g. insyd de case of reverse osmosis).<ref name="Cohen 2021 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Yoram | title=Materials and Energy | chapter=Advances in Water Desalination Technologies | publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC | year=2021 | volume=17 | isbn=978-981-12-2697-7 | issn=2335-6596 | doi=10.1142/12009 | page=| s2cid=224974880 }}</ref><ref name="IWA2022">{{Cite book |url=https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/850/Reducing-the-Greenhouse-Gas-Emissions-of-Water-and |title=Reducing the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Water and Sanitation Services: Overview of emissions and their potential reduction illustrated by utility know-how |date=2022 |publisher=IWA Publishing |isbn=978-1-78906-317-2 |editor-last=Alix |editor-first=Alexandre |language=en |doi=10.2166/9781789063172 |s2cid=250128707 |editor-last2=Bellet |editor-first2=Laurent |editor-last3=Trommsdorff |editor-first3=Corinne |editor-last4=Audureau |editor-first4=Iris}}</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2020, global desalination capacity stand at roughly 97 million m³/day from over 16,800 operating plants, plus contracted projects wey dey push total potential capacity beyond 114&nbsp;million m³ /day worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eke |first1=Joyner |last2=Yusuf |first2=Ahmed |last3=Giwa |first3=Adewale |last4=Sodiq |first4=Ahmed |date=December 1, 2020 |title=The global status of desalination: An assessment of current desalination technologies, plants and capacity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916420313114 |journal=Desalination |volume=495 |article-number=114633 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114633 |bibcode=2020Desal.49514633E |issn=0011-9164|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Insyd 2018, na de global energy intensity of desalination be about 3 kWh/m³ (insyd 2018), wey a factor of 10 from 20–30 kWh/m³ improve insyd 1970.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Nevertheless, desalination represent about 25% of de energy wey de water sector consume insyd 2016.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Key companies insyd de desalination industry dey include Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens AG, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries Inc., den Xylem.<ref>{{Cite press release |publisher=Research and Markets |date=March 7, 2025 |title=Desalination Market Forecast Report and Competitive Analysis 2025–2033 Featuring Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries, Xylem |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/03/07/3038838/28124/en/Desalination-Market-Forecast-Report-and-Competitive-Analysis-2025-2033-Featuring-Acciona-Dow-Evoqua-Water-Technologies-Siemens-DuPont-Doosan-Enerbility-Toray-Industries-Xylem.html |access-date=December 8, 2025 |via=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en-us}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == e0up8lc7wmzjisrh4zv61ujd8avnn68 104349 104348 2026-06-21T14:28:07Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Desalination''' be de artificial process by wich salt water (generally sea water) be converted to fresh water. More generally, desalination be de removal of salts den minerals from a substance.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/desalination "Desalination"] (definition), ''The American Heritage Science Dictionary'', via dictionary.com. Retrieved August 19, 2007.</ref> E be possible to desalinate saltwater, especially sea water, to produce water for human consumption anaa irrigation, wey dey produce brine as a by-product.<ref name="PanagopoulosHaralambousLoizidou2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Panagopoulos|first1=Argyris|last2=Haralambous|first2=Katherine-Joanne|last3=Loizidou|first3=Maria|date=November 25, 2019|title=Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies – A review|journal=The Science of the Total Environment|volume=693|article-number=133545|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351|issn=1879-1026|pmid=31374511|bibcode=2019ScTEn.69333545P|s2cid=199387639}}</ref> Interest insyd desalination mostly dey focus on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along plus recycled wastewater, e be one of de few [[water resources]] independent of rainfall.<ref name="Fischetti2007">{{Cite journal |last=Fischetti |first=Mark |date=September 2007 |title=Fresh from the Sea |journal=Scientific American|volume=297 |pmid=17784633 |issue=3 |pages=118–119|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0907-118 |bibcode=2007SciAm.297c.118F}}</ref> As stress on de need for freshwater dey intensify globally, desalination cam be a key part of strategies for global water security. According to a 2019 review insyd ''Science of the Total Environment'', around 95 million cubic meters per day of desalinated water be produced worldwide, den de demand for desalinated water be expected to grow significantly to help close de global water supply gap. Secof ein energy consumption, desalinating sea water generally be more costly dan fresh water from surface water anaa [[groundwater]], water recycling den water conservation. However, dese alternatives no be always available den depletion of reserves be a critical problem worldwide.<ref name="EbrahimiNajafpourYousefiKebria2019">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.002 |title=Performance of microbial desalination cell for salt removal and energy generation using different catholyte solutions |journal=Desalination |volume=432 |page=1 |year=2019 |last1=Ebrahimi |first1=Atieh |last2=Najafpour |first2=Ghasem D |last3=Yousefi Kebria |first3=Daryoush }}</ref><ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=March 19, 2019 |access-date=August 27, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Elsaid |first1=Khaled |last2=Kamil |first2=Mohammed |last3=Sayed |first3=Enas Taha |last4=Abdelkareem |first4=Mohammad Ali |last5=Wilberforce |first5=Tabbi |last6=Olabi |first6=A. |title=Environmental impact of desalination technologies: A review |journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]] |date=2020 |volume=748 |article-number=141528 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141528|pmid=32818886 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.74841528E }}</ref> Desalination processes dey use either thermal methods (insyd de case of distillation) anaa membrane-based methods (e.g. insyd de case of reverse osmosis).<ref name="Cohen 2021 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Yoram | title=Materials and Energy | chapter=Advances in Water Desalination Technologies | publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC | year=2021 | volume=17 | isbn=978-981-12-2697-7 | issn=2335-6596 | doi=10.1142/12009 | page=| s2cid=224974880 }}</ref><ref name="IWA2022">{{Cite book |url=https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/850/Reducing-the-Greenhouse-Gas-Emissions-of-Water-and |title=Reducing the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Water and Sanitation Services: Overview of emissions and their potential reduction illustrated by utility know-how |date=2022 |publisher=IWA Publishing |isbn=978-1-78906-317-2 |editor-last=Alix |editor-first=Alexandre |language=en |doi=10.2166/9781789063172 |s2cid=250128707 |editor-last2=Bellet |editor-first2=Laurent |editor-last3=Trommsdorff |editor-first3=Corinne |editor-last4=Audureau |editor-first4=Iris}}</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2020, global desalination capacity stand at roughly 97 million m³/day from over 16,800 operating plants, plus contracted projects wey dey push total potential capacity beyond 114&nbsp;million m³ /day worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eke |first1=Joyner |last2=Yusuf |first2=Ahmed |last3=Giwa |first3=Adewale |last4=Sodiq |first4=Ahmed |date=December 1, 2020 |title=The global status of desalination: An assessment of current desalination technologies, plants and capacity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916420313114 |journal=Desalination |volume=495 |article-number=114633 |doi=10.1016/j.desal.2020.114633 |bibcode=2020Desal.49514633E |issn=0011-9164|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Insyd 2018, na de global energy intensity of desalination be about 3 kWh/m³ (insyd 2018), wey a factor of 10 from 20–30 kWh/m³ improve insyd 1970.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Nevertheless, desalination represent about 25% of de energy wey de water sector consume insyd 2016.<ref name="IWA2022" />{{rp|24}} Key companies insyd de desalination industry dey include Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens AG, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries Inc., den Xylem.<ref>{{Cite press release |publisher=Research and Markets |date=March 7, 2025 |title=Desalination Market Forecast Report and Competitive Analysis 2025–2033 Featuring Acciona, Dow, Evoqua Water Technologies, Siemens, DuPont, Doosan Enerbility, Toray Industries, Xylem |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/03/07/3038838/28124/en/Desalination-Market-Forecast-Report-and-Competitive-Analysis-2025-2033-Featuring-Acciona-Dow-Evoqua-Water-Technologies-Siemens-DuPont-Doosan-Enerbility-Toray-Industries-Xylem.html |access-date=December 8, 2025 |via=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en-us}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://www.idadesal.org International Desalination and Reuse Association] * [http://www.edsoc.com/ European Desalination Society] * [http://www.dme-gmbh.de/desalination-technology/technology-basics/working-principles-in-desalination-systems/ Working principles in desalination systems] * [http://www.desware.net/ Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Environmental issues plus water]] [[Category:Filters]] [[Category:Fresh water]] [[Category:Water supply]] [[Category:Water desalination]] [[Category:Water treatment]] 58mor1vw3yyo7us10yzytfzesfiu372 0 27466 104341 103331 2026-06-21T13:45:42Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' (Arabic: السد, <small>romanized</small>: ''as-Sudd'', Nuer: Baki̱ec, Dinka: Toc) be a vast swamp for [[South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[White Nile]] ein ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' section form am. Dem derive de Arabic word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp dey cover be one of de world ein largest wetlands den de largest freshwater wetland for de Nile Basin insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De ancient Egyptians fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, a party of Roman soldiers wey de Emperor Nero send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into equatorial Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] give de source of de Nile be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[West Africa|West African]] rise for atmospheric methane levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from Mongalla to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] confluence plus de White Nile just upstream of Malakal as well as westwards along de Bahr el Ghazal. De shallow den flat inland delta dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de wet season e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various meandering channels, lagoons, reed den papyrus fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru evapotranspiration for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete Jonglei Canal, wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach Bor from de Albert Nile den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de Bahr al Jabal ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de Giraffes") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass Lake No, wey de Bahr el Ghazal ("Sea of de Gazelles") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap sediments from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. Orographic lifting for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de floodplain, wey dey slope down to de north, while north of Juba de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly impermeable plus a top layer of "black cotton" vertisol of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den Dinka pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''Phragmites communis'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''Echinochloa pyramidalis'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''Oryza barthii'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''Echinochloa stagnina'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''Vossia cuspidata'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''Cyperus papyrus'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''Typha domingensis'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating Nile cabbage (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive water hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of mosquitoes den parasites dat dey cause waterborne diseases. === Fauna === Dey include several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as marbled lungfish, Senegal bichir, African arowana, ''Mormyrus caschive'', Nile carp, Nile tilapia, mango tilapia, redbelly tilapia, Nile perch, ''Distichodus rostratus'', elongate tigerfish, African tetras, African sharptooth catfish, ''Synodontis frontosus'', ''S. schall'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few endemics of de Sudd system be ''Clarias engelseni'', ''Enteromius yeiensis'', ''Nothobranchius nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently undescribed species of ''Enteromius'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include shoebills (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), great white pelicans, den black crowned cranes. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of migrating birds. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry Sahel across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give migrating mammals, especially antelopes, such as de bohor reedbuck, sitatunga (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered Nile lechwe (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de white-eared kob (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, tiang den Mongalla gazelle dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water Nile crocodiles den hippopotamuses. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered painted hunting dog, wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running civil war in Southern Sudan seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: Zeraf Island between de Zeraf River den de Nile, Shambe Reserve, den Mongalla Game Reserve. == Jonglei diversion canal == De early explorers wey dey search give de source of de Nile experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', Alan Moorehead wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a canal east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de Sudan People's Liberation Army bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a Google Earth image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[Okavango Delta]] == References == <references /> === Bibliography === * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Read further == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} == External links == * [https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL2827708220070528 Elephant herds wey dem find for isolated south Sudan island top] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm Current hydrological] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm den ecological research program for de Sudd swamps top] * [https://maps.google.com/?ll=9.400291,30.500793&spn=1.287076,1.873169&t=k Sudd –] [https://maps.google.com/?ll=9.400291,30.500793&spn=1.287076,1.873169&t=k for Google Maps top] e4ydw6ri2k9620ca33nnvkeu77lvutw 104342 104341 2026-06-21T13:52:20Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' (Arabic: السد, <small>romanized</small>: ''as-Sudd'', Nuer: Baki̱ec, Dinka: Toc) be a vast swamp for [[South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[White Nile]] ein ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' section form am. Dem derive de Arabic word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean "barrier"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> anaa "obstruction".<ref>The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.</ref> De term "the sudd" cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp dey cover be one of de world ein largest wetlands den de largest freshwater wetland for de Nile Basin insyd. Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De ancient Egyptians fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.<ref name="Dumont2009">{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}</ref> For AD 61 insyd, a party of Roman soldiers wey de Emperor Nero send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into equatorial Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de [[:en:Nile#Search_for_the_source_of_the_Nile|search]] give de source of de Nile be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd. For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[West Africa|West African]] rise for atmospheric methane levels insyd ova de previous decade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> == Location == De Sudd dey stretch from Mongalla to just outside de [[:en:Sobat_River|Sobat River]] confluence plus de White Nile just upstream of Malakal as well as westwards along de Bahr el Ghazal. De shallow den flat inland delta dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd. Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de wet season e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various meandering channels, lagoons, reed den papyrus fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru evapotranspiration for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}</ref> A major feature of de area be de incomplete Jonglei Canal, wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd. From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach Bor from de Albert Nile den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.<ref name="mefit">{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}</ref> From de southern inflow of de Bahr al Jabal ("Sea of de Mountain") at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. Slightly downstream of Bor, de [[:en:Bahr_el_Zeraf|Bahr el Zeraf]] ("Sea of de Giraffes") river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass Lake No, wey de Bahr el Ghazal ("Sea of de Gazelles") dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile. Dem designate Sudd as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}. == Climate == Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap sediments from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.<ref name="baecher">{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}</ref> Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.<ref name="mefit" /> De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. Orographic lifting for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.<ref>Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs & Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106</ref> == Geomorphology == Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de floodplain, wey dey slope down to de north, while north of Juba de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd. Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly impermeable plus a top layer of "black cotton" vertisol of approximately 500&#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.<ref>Peterson, 2008</ref> Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top. == Population == [[:en:Nuer_people|Nuer]] den Dinka pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.<ref name="baecher" /> == Vegetation den ecosystem == Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be: * ''Phragmites communis'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''Echinochloa pyramidalis'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''Oryza barthii'' (shallow flooded, buried roots) * ''Echinochloa stagnina'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''Vossia cuspidata'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''Cyperus papyrus'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots) * ''Typha domingensis'' Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd. Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&#x20;cm deep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}</ref> Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. Historically, de fully floating Nile cabbage (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive water hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes'').<ref name="Green2009">{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}</ref> De sluggish waters be host to a large population of mosquitoes den parasites dat dey cause waterborne diseases. === Fauna === Dey include several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as marbled lungfish, Senegal bichir, African arowana, ''Mormyrus caschive'', Nile carp, Nile tilapia, mango tilapia, redbelly tilapia, Nile perch, ''Distichodus rostratus'', elongate tigerfish, African tetras, African sharptooth catfish, ''Synodontis frontosus'', ''S. schall'' den odas.<ref name="Green2009" /> Among de few endemics of de Sudd system be ''Clarias engelseni'', ''Enteromius yeiensis'', ''Nothobranchius nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently undescribed species of ''Enteromius'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.<ref name="Neumann2016">{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}</ref> Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include shoebills (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), great white pelicans, den black crowned cranes. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of migrating birds. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry Sahel across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give migrating mammals, especially antelopes, such as de bohor reedbuck, sitatunga (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered Nile lechwe (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de white-eared kob (further away from de permanent swampland).<ref name="Green2009" /> White-eared kob, tiang den Mongalla gazelle dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html "Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals"]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007</ref><ref name="Furniss2010">Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.</ref> Dem frequent de shallow water Nile crocodiles den hippopotamuses. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered painted hunting dog, wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}</ref> == Threats den preservation == De long-running civil war in Southern Sudan seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: Zeraf Island between de Zeraf River den de Nile, Shambe Reserve, den Mongalla Game Reserve. == Jonglei diversion canal == De early explorers wey dey search give de source of de Nile experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', Alan Moorehead wey e say of de Sudd, "der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration. Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}</ref> By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a canal east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&dq=motor+gun+boat&pg=PA34 "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map</ref> Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de Sudan People's Liberation Army bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either "Sarah" anaa "Lucy"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref>—dey visible for a Google Earth image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.<ref>[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&hl=en&ll=6.932647,31.52824&spn=0.009841,0.016512&sll=9.294596,30.168457&sspn=2.504328,4.22699&t=h&hnear=Jonglei+Canal&z=17 Google Earth image]</ref> Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.<ref name="ahmad">Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008</ref> South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd. Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m³ of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m³/s (3 883–5 368&#x20;ft³/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.<ref name="Furniss2010" /> Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.<ref name="ahmad" /> De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,<ref>[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}</ref> wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[:en:Lake_Chad|Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de [[:en:Aral_Sea|Aral Sea]]. == Make you sanso see == * [[Okavango Delta]] == References == <references /> === Bibliography === * Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116 * Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33 * Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany * Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK == Read further == * {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0905 "Saharan flooded grasslands"]. ''Terrestrial Ecoregions''. World Wildlife Fund. * [https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL2827708220070528 Elephant herds found on isolated south Sudan island] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm Current hydrological and ecological research program on the Sudd swamps] * [https://maps.google.com/?ll=9.400291,30.500793&spn=1.287076,1.873169&t=k Sudd – on Google Maps] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Afrotropical ecoregions]] [[Category:Ecoregions of South Sudan]] [[Category:Flooded grasslands den savannas]] [[Category:Grasslands of South Sudan]] [[Category:Nile]] [[Category:Swamps of Africa]] [[Category:Wetlands of South Sudan]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd South Sudan]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of South Sudan]] mzdsqsu0rxtvadycgn8czao3oxqt14n 0 27467 104337 101848 2026-06-21T12:31:23Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Buffels River''' be river wey dey flow only for a short period after rainfall den be dry for most of de year. E dey locate insyd de Northern Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. E dey flow thru de arid Namaqualand region den generally dey drain westwards towards de [[Atlantic Ocean]] near Kleinzee. De river dey make up of highly irregular flow patterns, e dey depend mainly on seasonal rainfall insyd ein catchment area.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Buffels River catchment illustrating the drainage network and rainfall isohyets |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Buffels-River-catchment-illustrating-the-drainage-network-and-rainfall-isohyets-The_fig1_49608860 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Estuaries |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2011.01.004 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159}}</ref> == Course den basin == [[File:The Buffels River catchment.jpg|thumb|River catchment wey dey illustrate de drainage network den rainfall isohyets (lines connecting points wey dey receive similar rainfall over a specified time period). ]] De Buffels River dey originate insyd de inland highlands of de Northern Cape den dey flow westwards thru Namaqualand, e dey pass thru settlements such as Springbok, Nabaneep, den Okiep before reaching de Atlantic coast near Kleinzee, wey e fi form a temporary estuary during flood periods. De total course of de river be around 250 km (160 mi) insyd length.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Benito |first1=G. |last2=Botero |first2=B. A. |last3=Thorndycraft |first3=V. R. |last4=Rico |first4=M. |last5=Sánchez-Moya |first5=Y. |last6=Sopeña |first6=A. |last7=Machado |first7=M. J. |last8=Dahan |first8=O. |date=2011-04-08 |title=Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1185/2011/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=1185–1196 |doi=10.5194/hess-15-1185-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011HESS...15.1185B |issn=1607-7938}}</ref> Insyd ein lower reaches, de river be usually dry den only dey flow after heavy rainfall. E be highly ephemeral, wey dey flow strictly during flash floods den heavy rains, den dey remain completely dry for most of de year.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Gend |first1=J. |last2=Francis |first2=M. L. |last3=Watson |first3=A. P. |last4=Palcsu |first4=L. |last5=Horváth |first5=A. |last6=Macey |first6=P. H. |last7=Le Roux |first7=P. |last8=Clarke |first8=C. E. |last9=Miller |first9=J. A. |title=Impacts of climate change and human activities on water resources and water quality |journal=The Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=762 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143140 |pmid=33131834 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720366705}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2011-05-01 |title=Hydrological response of a dryland ephemeral river to southern African climatic variability during the last millennium |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en-US |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.yqre |doi-broken-date=8 June 2026 |issn=0033-5894 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240421184612/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033589411000159 |archive-date=2024-04-21}}</ref> == Hydrology == De Buffels River be an ephemeral river wey dey flow only after rain fall. E dey drain a catchment area of approximately 9,000–9,500 km² wey e primarily dey depend on austral winter rainfall between May den September, although de eastern part of de catchment dey experience summer rainfall dem associate plus thunderstorms.<ref name=":2" /> Rainfall insyd de region dey range between 100 mm den 300 mm annually, wey dey make de river highly prone to flash floods followed by long dry periods.<ref name=":0" /> De majority of floods occur insyd de winter rainfall season, although occasional summer rainfall fi cause flash floods.<ref name=":2" /> == Geology den Environment == De river dey flow thru de Namaqualand geological province, wich be dominated by ancient granite, gneiss, den metamorphic rocks. De region be semi-arid plus sparse vegetation wey adapt to drought conditions. Secof de soil be shallow den rocky, e no fi retain much water, so rainwater dey run off quickly after rainfall.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Portal |url=https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/esploro/outputs/graduate/The-provenance-of-the-Buffels-River/9911142007691 |access-date=2026-06-07 |website=ujcontent.uj.ac.za}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of de Northern Cape]] [[Category:Dry anaa seasonal streams]] 4lbq7zyh0usln6eqduqvvpiuntwsa87 0 27472 104334 104332 2026-06-21T12:01:58Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Geba''' (French: ''Rivière Geba'', Portuguese: ''Rio Geba'') be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. E dey flow for approximately {{convert|550|km}} thru [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E sanso be called de '''Kayanga''' insyd Senegal. == Geography == === Route === De Geba dey rise insyd de northernmost area of [[Guinea]] insyd de Fouta Djallon highlands, wey dey pass thru southern [[Senegal]], den dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]] insyd [[Guinea-Bissau]]. E be about {{convert|550|km}} in total length.<ref name="eosnap">{{cite web |title=Golden Sediments from Geba River, Guinea Bissau |url=http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927094342/http://www.eosnap.com/image-of-the-day/golden-sediments-from-geba-river-guinea-bissau-november-27th-2012/ |archive-date=27 September 2020 |accessdate=8 October 2015 |website=Earth Snapshot |publisher=Chelys}}</ref> E be largely a lowland river, plus a higher flow during de rainy season (from June to October). De areas around de lower reaches of de river be floodplains wey be surrounded by savanna den forest, plus a high population density based around subsistence farming.<ref name="Z2017">{{cite journal |last1=Zúquete |first1=Sara Tudela |last2=Coelho |first2=João |last3=Rosa |first3=Fernanda |last4=Vaz |first4=Yolanda |last5=Cassamá |first5=Bernardo |last6=Padre |first6=Ludovina |last7=Santos |first7=Dulce |last8=Basto |first8=Afonso P. |last9=Leitão |first9=Alexandre |title=Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) infestations in cattle along Geba River basin in Guinea-Bissau |journal=Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases |date=January 2017 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=161–169 |doi=10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.10.013 |url=https://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/bitstream/10174/20963/1/Tick%20Acari_%20Ixodidae%20infestations%20in%20cattle%20along%20Geba%20River%20basin%20in.pdf |access-date=3 April 2026}}</ref>{{rp|162}} De mouth of de Geba be a wide tidal estuary wey be shared plus de [[Corubal River]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sambou |first1=Saly |last2=Dacosta |first2=Honore |last3=Diouf |first3=Rene Ndimag |last4=Diouf |first4=Ibrahima |last5=Kane |first5=Alioune |title=Hydropluviometric variability in non-Sahelian West Africa: case of the Koliba/Corubal River Basin (Guinea and Guinea-Bissau) |journal=Proceedings of IAHS |date=16 September 2020 |volume=383 |pages=171–183 |doi=10.5194/piahs-383-171-2020 |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/383/171/2020/ |access-date=3 April 2026 |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |language=en |doi-access=free|hdl=11343/281039 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> De tidal range fi be as high as {{convert|7|m}} within de estuary (dem sanso call de ''Geba Channel'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dièye |first1=Arame |last2=Marchesiello |first2=Patrick |last3=Sow |first3=Bamol Ali |last4=Dieng |first4=Habib Boubacar |last5=Thuan |first5=Duong Hai |last6=Descroix |first6=Luc |title=Tidal amplification and distortion in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa |journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science |date=August 2025 |volume=320 |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2025.109318 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771425001969 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Ein tributaries dey include de Anambe, Gambiel, den Campossa (anaa Colufe) rivers. De Colufe River dey join de Geba at Bafatá. De Geba dey share a broad estuary plus de Corubal River (wich e dey join near Xime). Bissau, de capital of Guinea-Bissau dey locate along de north shore of dis estuary. De estuary dey widen further as de river dey flow into de Atlantic around de Bijagós Islands archipelago.<ref name="NASA">{{cite web |last1=Patel |first1=Kasha |date=18 June 2018 |title=The Meandering Estuaries of Guinea–Bissau - NASA Science |url=https://science.nasa.gov/earth/earth-observatory/the-meandering-estuaries-of-guineabissau-92266/ |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=NASA Science}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Campredon |first1=Pierre |title=The Wetland Book |last2=Catry |first2=Paulo |date=2016 |publisher=Springer, Dordrecht |pages=1–8 |language=en |chapter=Bijagos Archipelago (Guinea-Bissau) |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_158-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_158-1 |chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Ashley |last2=Thieme |first2=Michele |title=Northern Upper Guinea |url=https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/511 |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=Freshwater Ecoregions of the World}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *Salif Diop, ''[https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_2/etudes_theses/40109.pdf La côte ouest-africaine. Du Saloum (Sénégal) à la Mellacorée (Rép. de Guinée)]'', ORSTOM, Paris, 1990, p.&nbsp;380 {{Authority control}} [[Category:Geba River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Guinea]] [[Category:Rivers of Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Bafatá]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] 5oq1vinoed8xdj71t8gmse6imbhshek 0 27477 104362 102026 2026-06-21T23:00:02Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104362 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002068}} De '''Buffalo River''' dey insyd dee city of East London on de East Coast of South Africa. Edey de west of de Nahoon River. Ebe de only navigable river insyd South Africa. Dem establish de town of East London around am. ==Ein Course== [[File:Buffalo River Bridge - East London Harbour - Cape Colony 1875.jpg|left|thumb|Original bridge over Buffalo River insyd East London dem build by de Molteno Government insyd de 1870s as part of ein East London - Queenstown line]] De Buffalo River get ein source insyd de seeps den sponges of de Amatola Mountains for altitude of 1200 m.<ref name="Health">{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Report Highlights Impacts on River Health (Buffalo River)|journal=The Water Wheel|issue=March/April|pages=8&ndash;11|url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|access-date=2013-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611070827/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> De river be 126 kilometres long wey edey drain catchment of 1287 square kilometres.<ref name="Health" /> From ein source, de river dey descend thru indigenous forest insyd deeply incised channel, flanked by rock cliffs up to 120 metres high. De quality of dese headwaters be good. After only seven kilometres, de river dey face ein first obstruction, de small Maden Dam, wey dem build insyd 1910 (116 years old).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maden Dam details |url=https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/bldgframes.php?bldgid=10208 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.artefacts.co.za}}</ref> Four kilometres downstream of Maden Dam, de much larger Rooikrantz Dam dey impound about five million cubic metres. Rooikrantz Dam dey supply water give King William's Town den ein surrounding areas. Twenty kilometres from ein source, for altitude of 450 metres above mean sea level, de Cwengcwe River den Izele River join de Buffalo from de northeast. From here de river dey run through undulating plains. Two major tributaries from de west wey dey join de middle section of de Buffalo River be de Mgqakwebe River just upstream of King William's Town den de Ngqokweni River at Zwelitsha. Plus de oda important tributary be de Yellowwoods River, plus e dey flow from de north come straight enter Laing Dam. Wen e full, Laing Dam dey cover 203 hectares wey e get 20 million cubic metres of water. From Laing Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow go east for 40 kilometres reach Bridle Drift Dam, wey be de biggest impoundment for de river, plus full supply volume of 101 million cubic metres. Small streams for de northern bank dey carry runoff come straight enter Bridle Drift Dam from Mdantsane, wey be de second biggest township for Eastern Cape. From Bridle Drift Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow pass low-altitude coastal forest for twenty kilometres and e form de northern border of Umtiza Nature Reserve before e enter de Indian Ocean thru de estuary harbour of East London. ==Ein Ecology== De endangered border barb dey live insyd de waters of de Buffalo River.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/2573/0 Barbus trevelyani]</ref> Small population of de endangered Eastern Province rocky ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' dey insyd de Yellowwoods River, part of de Buffalo River basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> Presently dis river be part of de Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area.<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== Include de Mgqakwebe River, Ngqokweni River den Yellowwoods River, dis last river dey include some waterfalls de largest wey be de Yellowwoods Falls, near Breidbach. == References == [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] [[Category:East London, South Africa]] <references /> ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008000151/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/buffalo.html Buffalo River Estuary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080504/http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/water_infrastructure.stm Amatola water] ru7q0cvhueobt8kc06gkur30qtwxp4n 104363 104362 2026-06-21T23:03:51Z DaSupremo 9 /* External links */ Add sister link 104363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002068}} De '''Buffalo River''' dey insyd dee city of East London on de East Coast of South Africa. Edey de west of de Nahoon River. Ebe de only navigable river insyd South Africa. Dem establish de town of East London around am. ==Ein Course== [[File:Buffalo River Bridge - East London Harbour - Cape Colony 1875.jpg|left|thumb|Original bridge over Buffalo River insyd East London dem build by de Molteno Government insyd de 1870s as part of ein East London - Queenstown line]] De Buffalo River get ein source insyd de seeps den sponges of de Amatola Mountains for altitude of 1200 m.<ref name="Health">{{Cite journal|year=2005|title=Report Highlights Impacts on River Health (Buffalo River)|journal=The Water Wheel|issue=March/April|pages=8&ndash;11|url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|access-date=2013-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611070827/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2005/02/WaterWheel_2005_02_Buffalo%20River%20p%208-11.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> De river be 126 kilometres long wey edey drain catchment of 1287 square kilometres.<ref name="Health" /> From ein source, de river dey descend thru indigenous forest insyd deeply incised channel, flanked by rock cliffs up to 120 metres high. De quality of dese headwaters be good. After only seven kilometres, de river dey face ein first obstruction, de small Maden Dam, wey dem build insyd 1910 (116 years old).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maden Dam details |url=https://www.artefacts.co.za/main/Buildings/bldgframes.php?bldgid=10208 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=www.artefacts.co.za}}</ref> Four kilometres downstream of Maden Dam, de much larger Rooikrantz Dam dey impound about five million cubic metres. Rooikrantz Dam dey supply water give King William's Town den ein surrounding areas. Twenty kilometres from ein source, for altitude of 450 metres above mean sea level, de Cwengcwe River den Izele River join de Buffalo from de northeast. From here de river dey run through undulating plains. Two major tributaries from de west wey dey join de middle section of de Buffalo River be de Mgqakwebe River just upstream of King William's Town den de Ngqokweni River at Zwelitsha. Plus de oda important tributary be de Yellowwoods River, plus e dey flow from de north come straight enter Laing Dam. Wen e full, Laing Dam dey cover 203 hectares wey e get 20 million cubic metres of water. From Laing Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow go east for 40 kilometres reach Bridle Drift Dam, wey be de biggest impoundment for de river, plus full supply volume of 101 million cubic metres. Small streams for de northern bank dey carry runoff come straight enter Bridle Drift Dam from Mdantsane, wey be de second biggest township for Eastern Cape. From Bridle Drift Dam, de Buffalo River dey flow pass low-altitude coastal forest for twenty kilometres and e form de northern border of Umtiza Nature Reserve before e enter de Indian Ocean thru de estuary harbour of East London. ==Ein Ecology== De endangered border barb dey live insyd de waters of de Buffalo River.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/2573/0 Barbus trevelyani]</ref> Small population of de endangered Eastern Province rocky ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' dey insyd de Yellowwoods River, part of de Buffalo River basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> Presently dis river be part of de Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area.<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== Include de Mgqakwebe River, Ngqokweni River den Yellowwoods River, dis last river dey include some waterfalls de largest wey be de Yellowwoods Falls, near Breidbach. == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061008000151/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/buffalo.html Buffalo River Estuary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120111080504/http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/water_infrastructure.stm Amatola water] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] [[Category:East London, South Africa]] srnw3j9dskv3jw1zn4dsbrb95wzht9u 0 27479 104364 102027 2026-06-21T23:20:23Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104364 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002066}} De '''Buffalo River''' (Zulu: ''uMzinyathi''; Afrikaans: ''Buffelsrivier'') be de biggest tributary of de Tugela River for [[South Africa]]. Eget total length of 426 km (265 mi), wey ein source dey for Majuba Hill, wey dem dey call am “Hill of Doves” for de Zulu language. De hill dey northeast of Volksrust, close to de border between Mpumalanga den KwaZulu-Natal. De river dey follow south route enter KwaZulu-Natal pass Newcastle, den eturn southeast pass Rorke ein Drift before e join de Tugela River<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA7Thukela.jpg Thukela WMA 7]</ref> for Ngubevu, near Nkandla. For de nineteenth century, de Buffalo River form part of de boundary between de Colony of Natal denZululand. De Buffalo River get sam number of tributaries, wey dey include de Ingagane River from de southwest den de Blood River from de northeast, plus e join am near Kandi Mountain.<ref>[http://www.bgs.ac.uk/sadcreports/rsa1932humphreygeologyofvryheid.pdf The Geology of Vryheid]</ref> Rorke's Drift be sam ford across de Buffalo River wey be one of de famous places for de Anglo-Zulu War of 1878–79, den Isandhlwana be anoda important place for dat war. E dey about 20 km southeast of de river, not too far from where de Buffalo River den de Tugela River meet. == Ein Tributaries == * [[Batshe]] * [[Bazangoma (Buffalo)|Bzangoma]] * [[:en:Blood_River|Blood River]] * [[Cold Stream (Buffalo)|Cold Stream]] * [[Doringspruit (Buffalo)|Doringspruit]] * [[Dorpspruit (Buffalo)|Dorpspruit]] * [[Kweekspruit]] * [[Mangeni (Buffalo)|Mangeni River]] * [[Imbabane River (Buffalo)|Imbabane River]] * [[Mngeni (Buffalo)|Mngeni River]] * [[Mbizana River (Buffalo)]] * [[Ndweni]] * [[Ingagane]] * [[Sandspruit (Buffalo)|Sandspruit]] * [[Sibindi]] * [[Slang River (Buffalo)|Slang River]] * [[Teku River]] * [[Wasbank (Buffalo)|Wasbankspruit]] * [[Womeni]] == References == <references /> ==External links== *[http://www.sa-venues.com/activities/white-water-rafting.htm White Water Rafting in South Africa] [[Category:Tugela River]] [[Category:Rivers of KwaZulu-Natal]] jnprxcuwlpq37yj25w9s403hooy7wib 104365 104364 2026-06-21T23:22:08Z DaSupremo 9 /* External links */ Add sister link 104365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q1002066}} De '''Buffalo River''' (Zulu: ''uMzinyathi''; Afrikaans: ''Buffelsrivier'') be de biggest tributary of de Tugela River for [[South Africa]]. Eget total length of 426 km (265 mi), wey ein source dey for Majuba Hill, wey dem dey call am “Hill of Doves” for de Zulu language. De hill dey northeast of Volksrust, close to de border between Mpumalanga den KwaZulu-Natal. De river dey follow south route enter KwaZulu-Natal pass Newcastle, den eturn southeast pass Rorke ein Drift before e join de Tugela River<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA7Thukela.jpg Thukela WMA 7]</ref> for Ngubevu, near Nkandla. For de nineteenth century, de Buffalo River form part of de boundary between de Colony of Natal denZululand. De Buffalo River get sam number of tributaries, wey dey include de Ingagane River from de southwest den de Blood River from de northeast, plus e join am near Kandi Mountain.<ref>[http://www.bgs.ac.uk/sadcreports/rsa1932humphreygeologyofvryheid.pdf The Geology of Vryheid]</ref> Rorke's Drift be sam ford across de Buffalo River wey be one of de famous places for de Anglo-Zulu War of 1878–79, den Isandhlwana be anoda important place for dat war. E dey about 20 km southeast of de river, not too far from where de Buffalo River den de Tugela River meet. == Ein Tributaries == * [[Batshe]] * [[Bazangoma (Buffalo)|Bzangoma]] * [[:en:Blood_River|Blood River]] * [[Cold Stream (Buffalo)|Cold Stream]] * [[Doringspruit (Buffalo)|Doringspruit]] * [[Dorpspruit (Buffalo)|Dorpspruit]] * [[Kweekspruit]] * [[Mangeni (Buffalo)|Mangeni River]] * [[Imbabane River (Buffalo)|Imbabane River]] * [[Mngeni (Buffalo)|Mngeni River]] * [[Mbizana River (Buffalo)]] * [[Ndweni]] * [[Ingagane]] * [[Sandspruit (Buffalo)|Sandspruit]] * [[Sibindi]] * [[Slang River (Buffalo)|Slang River]] * [[Teku River]] * [[Wasbank (Buffalo)|Wasbankspruit]] * [[Womeni]] == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} *[http://www.sa-venues.com/activities/white-water-rafting.htm White Water Rafting in South Africa] [[Category:Tugela River]] [[Category:Rivers of KwaZulu-Natal]] les03tsvvk6vokbs4bbqtl8fb7tyuzb 0 27484 104366 102032 2026-06-21T23:29:00Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q3636498}} De '''Groot River''' be river insyd de southern area of de Western Cape province of [[South Africa]]. Ebe right hand tributary of de Gourits River. ==Ein Course== De Groot River rise for de Komsberg Escarpment of de Great Karoo,<ref>[https://rhodes-za.academia.edu/NigelBarker/Papers/595155/Clark_V.R._Barker_N.P._and_Mucina_L._2011_._The_Roggeveldberge_-_notes_on_a_botanically_hot_area_on_a_cold_corner_of_the_southern_Great_Escarpment_South_Africa._South_African_Journal_of_Botany_77_112-126 Clark, V.R., Barker, N.P., & Mucina, L. (2011). The Roggeveldberge – notes on a botanically hot area on a cold corner of the southern Great Escarpment, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 77: 112–126]</ref> about 40 km south of Sutherland for Northern Cape Province, wey dem dey call am Komsberg for ein upper course. As e dey flow go southeast, edey turn de Buffels River. Den e bend go south through Laingsburg den flow first go southeast, den south enter Floriskraal Dam, den southwest, before e flow south again den cut pass de Klein Swartberg Mountains through Buffelspoort, sam deep gorge, enter insyd de Little Karoo. De river finally become de Groot River for de point where de Buffels River den de Klein-Swartberg River meet, about 50 km before e join de Touws River. After dat, e flow go east, pass Van Wyksdorp, towards where e go join de Gourits River.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA16Gouritz.jpg Gouritz WMA 16]</ref> Ein main tributary be de Touws River wey rise for de Hex River Mountains, den e flow go east through de town wey get de same name, den south enter de Little Karoo, where e join de right bank of de Groot River. == Dams insyd de Groot River basin == * Floriskraal Dam (capacity {{convert|50300000|m3}}), * Bellair Dam (capacity {{convert|10100000|m3}}), * Miertjieskraal Dam ==References== [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] <references /> {{Commons}} pagem7eckwdo2xu7f5wdq352ubwxhtu 0 27486 104367 102038 2026-06-21T23:30:53Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q3642221}} De '''Groot River''' be river insyd de southern area of de Eastern Cape province of [[South Africa]]. Ebe right tributary of de [[Gamtoos River]].<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/institutes/iwr//wetland/data/GamtoosSYSTEM/GamtoosSystemReport.pdf Catchment L, the Gamtoos River System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222080910/http://www.ru.ac.za/static/institutes/iwr/wetland/data/GamtoosSYSTEM/GamtoosSystemReport.pdf |date=2014-12-22 }}</ref> Dis river dey pass thru Steytlerville. ==Ein Course== De Groot River start for sam point wey de Kariega River den de Sout River meet, although dem dey enter de Beervlei Dam as de Sout River. Beyond de dam, de river dey turn de Groot River, wey e dey flow go southeast. Near de town of Steytlerville, edey turn small go south before ego move go east again. Last-last, edey bend go south again before ego join de Kouga River make dem form de Gamtoos for de place wey de rivers meet.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |title=Fish Tsitsikamma WMA 15 |access-date=28 March 2012 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630195400/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==References== [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] <references /> {{Commons}} kiz1j2rqrxtqbh4lumimbv05mqbm2vg 0 27487 104400 102267 2026-06-22T11:36:05Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104400 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q5610287}} De '''Groot River''' (English: "Large River") be river insyd de Western Cape Province, [[South Africa]]. Ebe part of de [[Olifants River (Western Cape)|Olifants/Doring River]] system. E for no be confuse plus de [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)|Groot River of Eastern Cape]] anaa de [[Groot River (Southern Cape)|Groot River of Southern Cape]] provinces. ==Ein Course== Ebe formed by de confluence of de Twee River and Lang River, wey dem dey flow from de eastern slopes of de Cederberg Mountains, southeast of Citrusdal. De Groot dey flow go east through de Skurweberge Mountains where e join de Riet River wey rise as de Winkelhaak River and Houdenbeks River north of Ceres. Below dis confluence, de Riet River be joined by de Brandkraals River and Matjies River, after which e flow insyd de Doring River.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Ecology== De Clanwilliam Yellowfish (''Labeobarbus capensis''), sam local endemic wey dey classify as Vulnerable by de IUCN, dey dis river insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV212-web-conservation.pdf |title=Technical Report on the State of Yellowfishes in South Africa 2007 |access-date=2012-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629065416/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV212-web-conservation.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==References== <references /> == External links == *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083759/http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/1483-1-09.pdf The Influence of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Temperature on the Distribution, Habitat, Use and Recruitment of Threatened Cyprinids in a Western Cape River, South Africa] *[http://www.ewisa.co.za/misc/RiverWCDoring/DORINGRiver_Tributories%20.htm Doring River: Tributaries] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] 43349ozbhgll4dogg5ihqu0f4gpr05m 0 27612 104370 104320 2026-06-22T10:19:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. == References == gqbcdf7pkbpfz5xmtrlt171szj6er31 104371 104370 2026-06-22T10:20:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. == References == 2c1fc8czxo42sqn681btt9zle00tvdm 104372 104371 2026-06-22T10:20:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. == References == sfsldv7gjnjof8vo41jpq20r0zizxtz 104373 104372 2026-06-22T10:21:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. == References == kvlxdu1k3whutcsm50mo8umr9lc5qff 104374 104373 2026-06-22T10:21:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. == References == jvsj0zz2ikkl2nqjgm0loq6l88s91is 104375 104374 2026-06-22T10:22:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%. == References == 6033wouyu05fgpciz5clg34hlhqg1gc 104376 104375 2026-06-22T10:22:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == References == foxtfrstluhxucwpnq65pliw8k8luc7 104377 104376 2026-06-22T10:25:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. == References == 6bihkoap8ce7swei3m17n9mbepizpzi 104378 104377 2026-06-22T11:13:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. == References == 0jairg6pc56nqq42zfxx46vjg025y1t 104379 104378 2026-06-22T11:14:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. == References == 6hi0eh2xm3hx82sr97ff4pw40m4wm1s 104380 104379 2026-06-22T11:15:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am. == References == 30cnm7gpee0spd7n72a3v6qhe3j0v0d 104381 104380 2026-06-22T11:16:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> == References == rwxv5wau117lzzm0ub7ryz2017k3xlv 104382 104381 2026-06-22T11:17:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. == References == c7rkqbcd9ub5l4pm6w9b6y4redfoxe6 104383 104382 2026-06-22T11:17:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. == References == 32ax0jxetvcv9a62lwplyxkhx96yvs5 104384 104383 2026-06-22T11:18:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. == References == 286ei2tmt3i2252s22qhme1t908pxdx 104385 104384 2026-06-22T11:19:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. == References == iwv0m42eix5de2yucj3v8kb16vr6bzg 104386 104385 2026-06-22T11:21:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. == References == cefwrx3z726ok5qmb545ptp5movas0c 104387 104386 2026-06-22T11:22:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20. == References == mfm8ac2819po6cxopvns1bipwxaoewv 104388 104387 2026-06-22T11:23:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104388 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> == References == jdx552fzkqkmveay87aeundz37t0c5q 104389 104388 2026-06-22T11:24:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible. == References == t1b0vafqnswyv6wggvbn550rqe31yaa 104390 104389 2026-06-22T11:26:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> == References == a06i0wqn4zp08g5qgqiy8cwngc2x15p 104391 104390 2026-06-22T11:29:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. == References == s6g1ht28pb3ledfx0zy6z7jzw38lkui 104392 104391 2026-06-22T11:29:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104392 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge. == References == p80p3yfcjly1ide64jr53egcus7rzg5 104393 104392 2026-06-22T11:30:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104393 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == References == s234frgxs85sm8kidu2zwpb2jikasde 104394 104393 2026-06-22T11:31:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. == References == lnl6o704o58bnvw016xu37n03d23lui 104395 104394 2026-06-22T11:31:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104395 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. == References == hryz7cscq5dj837ua8qsmaqffmz90g5 104396 104395 2026-06-22T11:32:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. == References == q33kihcz047ck147yid1y0bobbmnidu 104397 104396 2026-06-22T11:32:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104397 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank. == References == n4l3nmli2puf4316uiuqm7fwq6nsvwz 104398 104397 2026-06-22T11:33:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104398 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == References == 402w2znk6sf9mcooox70ssmirhi428o 0 27735 104358 104137 2026-06-21T21:14:58Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1324370313|Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station]]" 104358 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:77.106%;left:56.473%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station.</div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |Kafue Gorge, Chikankata District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_Gorge_Lower_Power_Station&params=15_53_46_S_28_33_33_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°53′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°33′33″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.89611°S 28.55917°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-15.89611; 28.55917</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_Gorge_Lower_Power_Station&params=15_53_46_S_28_33_33_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°53′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°33′33″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.89611°S 28.55917°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-15.89611; 28.55917</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Opening&nbsp;date | class="infobox-data" |2023 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$2 Billion |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |ZESCO |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |[[Kafue River]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Height | class="infobox-data" |140 m |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |378 m |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |5 x 150 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |750 megawatts (1,010,000&nbsp;hp) |} {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:235px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:235px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:235px">[[File:Zambia_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|235x235px|Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station is located in Zambia]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:77.106%;left:56.473%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station]]</div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Map of Zambia showing the location of Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station.</div></div></div></div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Location | class="infobox-data" |Kafue Gorge, Chikankata District |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Coordinates | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_Gorge_Lower_Power_Station&params=15_53_46_S_28_33_33_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°53′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°33′33″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.89611°S 28.55917°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-15.89611; 28.55917</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_Gorge_Lower_Power_Station&params=15_53_46_S_28_33_33_E_region:ZM_type:landmark <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°53′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°33′33″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.89611°S 28.55917°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-15.89611; 28.55917</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Purpose | class="infobox-data" |Power |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Status | class="infobox-data" |Operational |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Opening&nbsp;date | class="infobox-data" |2023 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Construction&nbsp;cost | class="infobox-data" |US$2 Billion |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Owner | class="infobox-data" |Government of Zambia |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Operator | class="infobox-data" |ZESCO |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Dam and spillways |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Impounds | class="infobox-data" |[[Kafue River]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Height | class="infobox-data" |140 m |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |378 m |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:skyblue; color:inherit;" |Power Station |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Turbines | class="infobox-data" |5 x 150 MW |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Installed<nowiki><span typeof="mw:Entity">&</nowiki>nbsp;<nowiki></span></nowiki>capacity | class="infobox-data" |750 megawatts (1,010,000&nbsp;hp) |} '''Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station''' ('''KGL'''), ein a {{convert|750|MW}} hydroelectric power station ein [[Zambia]].<ref name="1R">{{cite web |author=Teresia Njoroge |date=4 April 2019 |title=US $2bn Kafue Gorge Lower Hydropower station nears completion |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/2019/01/us-2bn-kafue-gorge-lower-hydropower-station-nears-completion/ |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=Construction Review Online |location=Nairobi}}</ref> As of 2017, according to USAID, Zambia had installed generating capacity of 2,800 megawatts. Of these, 2,380 megawatts (85 percent) was hydroelectricity.<ref name="4R">{{Cite web |last=USAID |date=16 April 2020 |title=Zambia Energy Sector Overview |url=https://www.usaid.gov/powerafrica/zambia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001230135/https://www.usaid.gov/powerafrica/zambia |archive-date=1 October 2015 |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID)}}</ref> Peak electricity demand ein Zambia has been recorded at 1,960 megawatts, with growth ein electricity demand estimated at between 150 MW den 200 MW every year. Approximately 70 percent of national electricity output is consumed by the country's mines ein de Copperbelt Province.<ref name="5R">{{Cite web |last=GET.invest |date=2019 |title=Zambia Energy Sector |url=https://www.get-invest.eu/market-information/zambia/energy-sector/ |publisher=GET.invest}}</ref> Ein October 2015, after de requisite feasibility den environmental studies, de engineering, procurement den construction contract was awarded to Sinohydro, a [[China|Chinese]], state-owned hydropower engineering and construction company. De contract price wey reported as US$2 billion, with 85 percent borrowed from de Exim Bank of China, den de Industrial de Commercial Bank of China. De government of Zambia was to invest de remaining 15 percent ein de project.<ref name="6R">{{Cite web |last=Lusaka Times |date=20 October 2015 |title=ZESCO signs deal to construct the Kafue Gorge Power Project |url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2015/10/20/zesco-signs-deal-to-construct-the-kafue-gorge-power-project/ |access-date=15 May 2020}}</ref> De power station wey dey located along de [[Kafue River]], between de Kafue Gorge Upper Power Station upstream den de confluence of de Kafue River with de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] downstream. De power station wey dey located approximately 90 kilometres (56 mi), by road, south of Lusaka, Zambia's capital city.<ref name="2R">{{Cite web |last=PGZambia |date=2018 |title=Kafue Gorge Hydro-power Station Benefiting Zambians |url=https://pgzambia.com/news/kafue-gorge-hydro-power-station-benefiting-zambians |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=Partners Group Zambia Limited}}</ref> De geographical coordinates of Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station are:15°53'46.0"S, 28°33'33.0"E (Latitude:-15.896111; Longitude:28.559167). Construction of de power station began ein November 2015.<ref name="7R">{{Cite web |last=Judith Namutowe |date=2 October 2015 |title=Zambia: Works On Kafue Gorge Lower Power Station to Begin Soon |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201510021530.html |access-date=15 May 2020 |format=via [[AllAfrica.com]]}}</ref> As of July 2019, de contractor expected to conclude during de fourth quarter of 2020. During construction, over 3,000 jobs were created.<ref name="8R">{{Cite web |last=Xinhua |date=15 July 2019 |title=Chinese firm expects to complete power plant by 2020 in Zambia |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/15/c_138229193.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717154646/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/15/c_138229193.htm |archive-date=17 July 2019 |access-date=15 May 2020 |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency]]}}</ref> ein September 2019, construction of de dam den power station were halted due to financial difficulties.<ref name="9R">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=23 September 2019 |title=Zambia: Sinohydro Halts Work At Kafue Gorge Dam Site |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-sinohydro-halts-work-at-kafue-gorge-dam-site/ |access-date=16 May 2020 |publisher=Afrik21.africa}}</ref> Ein July 2021, one of de five turbines (Turbine Number 2) was commercially commissioned to supply 150 megawatts to de Zambian national grid.<ref name="OnR">{{Cite web |last=Jean Marie Takouleu |date=30 July 2021 |title=Zambia: Sinohydro commissions Unit I of the Kafue hydroelectric power station |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/zambia-sinohydro-commissions-unit-i-of-the-kafue-hydroelectric-power-station/ |access-date=31 July 2021 |website=Afrik21.africa}}</ref> Ein March 2023, last of the five turbines was started. President Hakainde Hichilema officially commissioned de power station. Throughout its construction, de project has created 15,000 local jobs and has significantly contributed to de growth of de local construction, trade, den transportation sectors. Additionally, it has spurred de development of infrastructure surrounding de hydropower station. After construction, de hydropower plant will boost Zambia's power capacity by nearly 38%.<ref name="unknown">{{Cite journal |last=unknown |date=2023 |title=中国电建承建的赞比亚下凯富峡水电站所有机组全部投产发电 |journal=水泵技术 |volume=2}}</ref> == Funding == De below table summarizes de funding sources for de power station alone, without de related power line, road den other infrastructure.<ref name="6R">{{Cite web |last=Lusaka Times |date=20 October 2015 |title=ZESCO signs deal to construct the Kafue Gorge Power Project |url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2015/10/20/zesco-signs-deal-to-construct-the-kafue-gorge-power-project/ |access-date=15 May 2020}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFLusaka_Times2015">Lusaka Times (20 October 2015). </cite></ref><ref name="10R">{{Cite web |last=Jimmy Chibuye |date=12 October 2017 |title=Kafue Gorge Lower: Power Surplus Dream |url=http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/kafue-gorge-lower-power-surplus-dream/ |access-date=16 May 2020}}</ref> De power generated dey be evacuated via a 330-kilovolt transmission line, measuring approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) to Lusaka, for integration into de national power grid.<ref name="6R">{{Cite web |last=Lusaka Times |date=20 October 2015 |title=ZESCO signs deal to construct the Kafue Gorge Power Project |url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2015/10/20/zesco-signs-deal-to-construct-the-kafue-gorge-power-project/ |access-date=15 May 2020}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFLusaka_Times2015">Lusaka Times (20 October 2015). </cite></ref> [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 8paqmjgtki0kd3nk1m54675pruhaxq9 14 27758 104335 2026-06-21T12:05:11Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104335 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27759 104336 2026-06-21T12:17:49Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1299338991|Sofia River]]" 104336 wikitext text/x-wiki   De '''Sofia''' ebe river wey Dey northwestern [[Madagascar]]. Edey flow pass de Sofia Region. De source is at de Tsaratanana Massif at an altitude of 1784 metres.<ref name="HughesHughes1992">{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Ralph H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA801 |title=Iucn Directory of African Wetlands |last2=Hughes |first2=Jane S. |publisher=IUCN |year=1992 |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |page=801 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> It has a length of 328 kilometres (204 mi). Its mouth is in de Indian Ocean in de Boriziny-Vaovao District (Port-Bergé).<templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles> o6c0gdl59q9hsb1v2bzkjyhpfs7oqji 14 27760 104338 2026-06-21T12:33:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104338 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27761 104339 2026-06-21T12:35:39Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104339 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27762 104343 2026-06-21T13:55:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104343 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27763 104344 2026-06-21T13:55:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104344 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27764 104345 2026-06-21T13:57:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104345 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27765 104346 2026-06-21T13:58:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104346 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27766 104347 2026-06-21T13:59:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104347 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27767 104350 2026-06-21T14:30:34Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104350 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27768 104351 2026-06-21T14:30:45Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104351 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27769 104352 2026-06-21T14:30:57Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104352 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27770 104353 2026-06-21T14:31:09Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104353 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27771 104357 2026-06-21T20:51:44Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1287538217|Lofa River]]" 104357 wikitext text/x-wiki   De '''Lofa''' or '''Loffa''' ebe river whose headwaters originate dey ein eastern [[Guinea]] northeast of Macenta. De river runs southwest through northeastern [[Liberia]] before draining into de [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name="map">(1) {{Cite web |title=Liberia Physical Map |url=https://www.worldometers.info/img/maps/liberia_physical_map.gif |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624034902/https://www.worldometers.info/img/maps/liberia_physical_map.gif |archive-date=24 June 2020 |access-date=24 June 2020 |website=Worldometers}}</ref> Historically ebe also been known as de '''Little Cape Mount River'''.<ref name="expl">{{Cite book |last=Sims, James L. |title=African-American Exploration in West Africa: Four Nineteenth-century Diaries |last2=Seymour, George L. |last3=Anderson, Benjamin J. K. |last4=Fairhead, James |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-253-34194-9 |page=375}}</ref> De Lawa River enters de Lofa River ein Liberia's Lofa County.<ref name="map" /> Indigenous species include de pygmy hippopotamus. Several diamond mining concessions along de Lofa River were granted ein de late 1950s den early 1960s.<ref name="diamonds">{{Cite book |last=Greenhalgh, Peter |title=West African Diamonds |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1985 |isbn=0-7190-1763-7 |pages=72–73}}</ref>{{Reflist}} 12sev0k3kgml6rukt7dchyzdu7ts4kd 0 27772 104359 2026-06-21T22:18:15Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1356585679|Benin River]]" 104359 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Benin_River_Basin_OSM.png|thumb|Benin river Basin]] De '''Benin River''' be a river wey dey flow thru de south-west of [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Benin River, Nigeria - Geographical Names, map, geographic coordinates |url=https://geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=-2788102&fid=4331&c=nigeria |access-date=2021-03-23 |website=geographic.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Benin River, Nigeria |url=https://ng.geoview.info/benin_river,501246316n |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=ng.geoview.info}}</ref> De river dey start under de name "Ethiope" insyd de south east of de state, Edo. Subsequently, e dey run thru various cities den villages, such as Umutu, Owah Abbi, Obiaruku, Abraka, Igun Watershed, Idjerhe Kingdom, Sapele, Mosogar den Koko. Near Sapele de Ethiope continue into de Benin. From here on de river widen into a small estuary den dey discharge into de [[Gulf of Guinea]]. De Benin be partly a branch of de [[Niger River|Niger]], as de two rivers be connected thru a few streams. De river sanso be de hub of various commercial activities wey dey include a collection point for palm oil den kernels den timber. Another activity around de river den ein port dey include fishing, wich dey include de harvesting of crayfish den shrimps.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Enuneku |first=Alex |last2=Omoruyi |first2=Osaretin |last3=Tongo |first3=Isioma |last4=Ogbomida |first4=Emmanuel |last5=Ogbeide |first5=Ozekeke |last6=Ezemonye |first6=Lawrence |date=2018-11-15 |title=Evaluating the potential health risks of heavy metal pollution in sediment and selected benthic fauna of Benin River, Southern Nigeria |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0873-9 |journal=Applied Water Science |language=en |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=224 |doi=10.1007/s13201-018-0873-9 |issn=2190-5495 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De river sanso be used for transportation since e be wide den deep, while de adjoining land be used for cultivation of arable den commercial crops. == Climate/Weather == De Benin river get two to three seasons de dry den hot season, from January to April e be very hot den dry, while insyd May to July den September be raining season. De North part of de river get an extreme temperature, very hot den dry different from de southern side of de river. == Pollution == A recent study wey WHO conduct reveal de primary cause of water pollution insyd de City of Benin. Dese be consolidated impacts of rainfall den construction development work dem carry out insyd de area, as well as a lack of plumbing codes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Investigations of pipe-borne water pollution in Benin city, Nigeria {{!}} WHO FCTC |url=https://portal-uat.who.int/fctcapps/fctcapps/fctc/kh/wts/wts-database/investigations-pipe-borne-water-pollution-benin-city-nigeria |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=portal-uat.who.int}}</ref> Wen Benin City dey experience high pour of rain den flooding, water under flood tension dey enter de lines thru breaks, inappropriately fixed joints den harmed pipes. De lack of plumbing codes anaa absence of such codes be likewise distinguished as one more reason for de water pollution insyd Benin City, == References == 23dpjzt73vdryjoe1668g4i6yqk441w 0 27773 104360 2026-06-21T22:27:27Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1256543586|Sassandra River]]" 104360 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Sassandra River''' be a river of western [[Ivory Coast]] insyd [[West Africa]]. E be formed by de confluence of de Tienba River, wich dey originate insyd de highlands of north-western Ivory Coast, den de Gouan River (dem sanso know as de Bafing Sud River), wich dey originate to de west insyd de highlands of [[Guinea]]. De Sassandra dey flow south-southeast to empty into de [[Gulf of Guinea]] on de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Na dem construct de Buyo Dam across de middle stretch of de river insyd 1980, just below de confluence plus de Nzo River, to create de reservoir dem call Lake Buyo. De Davo River dey join de Sassandra just before e dey meet de sea. De port town of Sassandra dey lie on de seacoast wer de river meet de sea. De Sassandra den ein tributaries dey flow thru terrestrial ecoregions. De northern, anaa upper, part of de watershed dey lie insyd de [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|Guinean forest-savanna mosaic]] ecoregion. Further south, e dey form de boundary between two tropical moist forest ecoregions, de [[Western Guinean lowland forests]] den de Eastern Guinean forests.<ref>"Western Guinean lowland forests." World Wildlife Fund. Accessed 7 October 2015.</ref> == References == 1k1egy01i4e66ltscfaa9vmocnnystd 0 27774 104361 2026-06-21T22:32:31Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1356944079|Uele River]]" 104361 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Uele''', dem sanso know by de phonetically identical '''Uélé''', '''Ouélé''', anaa '''Welle River''',<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Ubangi River |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612233/Ubangi-River |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504121132/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612233/Ubangi-River |archive-date=4 May 2015 |access-date=8 August 2010 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> be a river insyd de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. == Course == De Uele dey form at Dungu, at de confluence of de Dungu den Kibali rivers, wich both originate insyd de mountains near [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]]. Combined dese rivers flow west for about 1,210 kilometres (750 mi), til de Uele join de Mbomou River at Yakoma. Main tributaries to de Uele river be de Bomokandi River (left side) den Uere River (right side). De Uele–Mbomou confluence at Yakoma dey mark de origin of de [[Ubangi River]], wich in turn dey flow into de [[Congo River]]. De Uele be de longest tributary of de Ubangi. De combined Ubangi–Uele length be about 2,270 kilometres (1,410 mi).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bossche |first=J.P. vanden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA338 |title=Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa, Volume 1 |last2=G. M. Bernacsek |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=1990 |isbn=978-92-5-102983-1 |page=338 |access-date=8 August 2010}}</ref> From satellite images, parts of de river dey look red from de iron oxide contaminants insyd de river. == Gallery == <gallery> File:Satellite_Images_of_the_Uele_River.png|Aerial imagery showing de red color of de river. </gallery> == References == == External links == bs91f8xk3nj6kugzdjwykekyjdrev94 0 27775 104399 2026-06-22T11:33:32Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360433666|Accra Psychiatric Hospital]]" 104399 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Accra Psychiatric Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-18 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital {{!}} Citinewsroom - Comprehensive News in Ghana |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/11/selected-mental-illnesses-to-be-covered-by-national-health-insurance/accra-psychiatric-hospital-6/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> '''(APH)''' be a mental health facility wey dey locate insyd [[Adabraka]], a suburb of Accra insyd de Korle Klottey Municipal insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asima |first=Christopher Kevin |date=2025-05-27 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital opens satellite clinics to combat substance abuse |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/05/accra-psychiatric-hospital-opens-satellite-clinics-to-combat-substance-abuse/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2022, na de hospital get a bed capacity of 600.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2022, de Director of de hospital be Dr. Pinaman Appau.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Caesar |first=Naa Shika |date=2022-03-22 |title=Accra Psychiatric hospital land has not been sold - Director |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/03/accra-psychiatric-hospital-land-has-not-been-sold-director/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-23 |title=Redevelopment of Accra Psychiatric Hospital to begin September |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/redevelopment-of-accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-begin-september.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> As at 2024, na de Director of de hospital be Dr Kwadwo Marfo Obeng.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2024-12-04 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital opens renovated washroom |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/accra-psychiatric-hospital-opens-renovated-washroom/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-22 |title=KGL Foundation pledges major facelift for Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/health/kgl-foundation-pledges-major-facelift-for-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> == History == Dem establish de hospital insyd 1906 wey e be formerly known as Lunatic Asylum.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html "Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project"]. ''Modern Ghana''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2026-06-20</span></span>.</cite></ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Commendations to the Management of Accra Psychiatric Hospital: A Short Open Letter to the Director of Administration |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1424074/commendations-to-the-management-of-accra-psychiatr.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get a nurse station, dining hall den a circulation room.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2020-07-13 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital gets facelift |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/accra-psychiatric-hospital-gets-facelift/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Redevelopment == Insyd November 2022, [[Kwaku Agyemang-Manu|Kwaku Agyeman Manu]] state insyd a Facebook post say, dem go redevelop de hospital into a new 220-bed psychiatric hospital under de Agenda 111 hospitals project.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html "Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project"]. ''Modern Ghana''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2026-06-20</span></span>.</cite></ref> == Controversy == Insyd November 2023, na dem order Dr Stephen Apio, a psychiatrist at de hospital to testify on de mental health of Daniel Axim.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2023-11-08 |title=Alleged MASLOC financial loss case: Psychiatrist ordered to testify on mental health of accused |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/alleged-masloc-financial-loss-case-psychiatrist-ordered-to-testify-on-mental-health-of-accused/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd June 2023, de Ghana International Women’s club (GIWC), an NGO donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-06 |title=Women’s club donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/womens-club-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> Insyd November 2022, de National Lottery Authority (NLA) donate food items den toiletries to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-25 |title=NLA donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/11/nla-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd December 2022, Alisa Hotel donate cash den items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-22 |title=Alisa donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/alisa-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] fmn8692ewstp2b8f81t0mwjsfxhrchs 104401 104399 2026-06-22T11:40:47Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104401 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Accra Psychiatric Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-18 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital {{!}} Citinewsroom - Comprehensive News in Ghana |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/11/selected-mental-illnesses-to-be-covered-by-national-health-insurance/accra-psychiatric-hospital-6/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> '''(APH)''' be a mental health facility wey dey locate insyd [[Adabraka]], a suburb of Accra insyd de Korle Klottey Municipal insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asima |first=Christopher Kevin |date=2025-05-27 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital opens satellite clinics to combat substance abuse |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/05/accra-psychiatric-hospital-opens-satellite-clinics-to-combat-substance-abuse/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2022, na de hospital get a bed capacity of 600.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2022, de Director of de hospital be Dr. Pinaman Appau.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Caesar |first=Naa Shika |date=2022-03-22 |title=Accra Psychiatric hospital land has not been sold - Director |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/03/accra-psychiatric-hospital-land-has-not-been-sold-director/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-23 |title=Redevelopment of Accra Psychiatric Hospital to begin September |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/redevelopment-of-accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-begin-september.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> As at 2024, na de Director of de hospital be Dr Kwadwo Marfo Obeng.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2024-12-04 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital opens renovated washroom |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/accra-psychiatric-hospital-opens-renovated-washroom/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-22 |title=KGL Foundation pledges major facelift for Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/health/kgl-foundation-pledges-major-facelift-for-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> == History == Dem establish de hospital insyd 1906 wey e be formerly known as Lunatic Asylum.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html "Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project"]. ''Modern Ghana''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2026-06-20</span></span>.</cite></ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Commendations to the Management of Accra Psychiatric Hospital: A Short Open Letter to the Director of Administration |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1424074/commendations-to-the-management-of-accra-psychiatr.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get a nurse station, dining hall den a circulation room.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2020-07-13 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital gets facelift |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/accra-psychiatric-hospital-gets-facelift/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Redevelopment == Insyd November 2022, [[Kwaku Agyemang-Manu|Kwaku Agyeman Manu]] state insyd a Facebook post say, dem go redevelop de hospital into a new 220-bed psychiatric hospital under de Agenda 111 hospitals project.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html "Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project"]. ''Modern Ghana''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2026-06-20</span></span>.</cite></ref> == Controversy == Insyd November 2023, na dem order Dr Stephen Apio, a psychiatrist at de hospital to testify on de mental health of Daniel Axim.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2023-11-08 |title=Alleged MASLOC financial loss case: Psychiatrist ordered to testify on mental health of accused |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/alleged-masloc-financial-loss-case-psychiatrist-ordered-to-testify-on-mental-health-of-accused/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd June 2023, de Ghana International Women’s club (GIWC), an NGO donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-06 |title=Women’s club donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/womens-club-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> Insyd November 2022, de National Lottery Authority (NLA) donate food items den toiletries to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-25 |title=NLA donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/11/nla-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd December 2022, Alisa Hotel donate cash den items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-22 |title=Alisa donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/alisa-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]] [[Category:Hospitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] [[Category:Hospital buildings dem plete insyd 1906]] [[Category:Hospitals dem establish insyd 1906]] [[Category:1906 establishments insyd Africa]] 87zz4heuhzb3eb8pf5r87hejdv2kcns 104402 104401 2026-06-22T11:42:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fix reference 104402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Accra Psychiatric Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-18 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital {{!}} Citinewsroom - Comprehensive News in Ghana |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/11/selected-mental-illnesses-to-be-covered-by-national-health-insurance/accra-psychiatric-hospital-6/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> '''(APH)''' be a mental health facility wey dey locate insyd [[Adabraka]], a suburb of Accra insyd de Korle Klottey Municipal insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asima |first=Christopher Kevin |date=2025-05-27 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital opens satellite clinics to combat substance abuse |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/05/accra-psychiatric-hospital-opens-satellite-clinics-to-combat-substance-abuse/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2022, na de hospital get a bed capacity of 600.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital to be redeveloped under Agenda 111 hospitals project|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1145602/accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-be-redeveloped-under.html|access-date=2026-06-20|website=Modern Ghana|language=en}}</ref> As at 2022, de Director of de hospital be Dr. Pinaman Appau.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Caesar |first=Naa Shika |date=2022-03-22 |title=Accra Psychiatric hospital land has not been sold - Director |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/03/accra-psychiatric-hospital-land-has-not-been-sold-director/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-23 |title=Redevelopment of Accra Psychiatric Hospital to begin September |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/redevelopment-of-accra-psychiatric-hospital-to-begin-september.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> As at 2024, na de Director of de hospital be Dr Kwadwo Marfo Obeng.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2024-12-04 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital opens renovated washroom |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/accra-psychiatric-hospital-opens-renovated-washroom/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-22 |title=KGL Foundation pledges major facelift for Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/health/kgl-foundation-pledges-major-facelift-for-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> == History == Dem establish de hospital insyd 1906 wey e be formerly known as Lunatic Asylum.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Commendations to the Management of Accra Psychiatric Hospital: A Short Open Letter to the Director of Administration |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1424074/commendations-to-the-management-of-accra-psychiatr.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get a nurse station, dining hall den a circulation room.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2020-07-13 |title=Accra Psychiatric Hospital gets facelift |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/accra-psychiatric-hospital-gets-facelift/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Redevelopment == Insyd November 2022, [[Kwaku Agyemang-Manu|Kwaku Agyeman Manu]] state insyd a Facebook post say, dem go redevelop de hospital into a new 220-bed psychiatric hospital under de Agenda 111 hospitals project.<ref name=":02" /> == Controversy == Insyd November 2023, na dem order Dr Stephen Apio, a psychiatrist at de hospital to testify on de mental health of Daniel Axim.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2023-11-08 |title=Alleged MASLOC financial loss case: Psychiatrist ordered to testify on mental health of accused |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/alleged-masloc-financial-loss-case-psychiatrist-ordered-to-testify-on-mental-health-of-accused/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd June 2023, de Ghana International Women’s club (GIWC), an NGO donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-06 |title=Women’s club donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/womens-club-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> Insyd November 2022, de National Lottery Authority (NLA) donate food items den toiletries to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-25 |title=NLA donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2022/11/nla-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd December 2022, Alisa Hotel donate cash den items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-22 |title=Alisa donates to Accra Psychiatric Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/alisa-donates-to-accra-psychiatric-hospital.html |access-date=2026-06-20 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]] [[Category:Hospitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] [[Category:Hospital buildings dem plete insyd 1906]] [[Category:Hospitals dem establish insyd 1906]] [[Category:1906 establishments insyd Africa]] c9hrz74d77qv4s82dxi8lj1ngy6yexp 14 27776 104403 2026-06-22T11:43:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104403 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27777 104404 2026-06-22T11:43:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104404 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27778 104405 2026-06-22T11:43:50Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104405 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27779 104406 2026-06-22T11:44:03Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104406 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1